IC-NRLF 


B    3    12S    DEE 


-LIBRARY  UCb 


A  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  GUIDE  IN 
BIOLOGICAL  NATURE-STUDY 


PREFACE 

This  field  and  laboratory  guide  in  biological  nature-study  is  the  outcome 
of  many  years'  experience  in  preparing  teachers  to  handle  nature-study  in 
the  grades  and  biology  in  the  secondary  schools.  It  is  intended  primarily 
for  the  use  of  students  who  are  preparing  to  teach  this  work  and  of  teach- 
ers who  are  already  at  it.  It  does  not  attempt  systematically  to  cover  the 
field  of  biology  but  merely  to  deal  with  those  groups  of  plants  and  animals 
that  are  of  most  interest  to  pupils. 

Those  phases  of  the  subject-matter  have  been  selected  that  lend  them- 
selves best  to  project  and  problem  teaching,  that  develop  appreciation  of 
the  commonplace  environment,  and  that  make  for  social  efficiency  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  prove  helpful  to  that 
large  and  increasing  group  of  teachers,  both  actual  and  prospective,  who  are 
earnestly  trying  to  use  in  the  schools  that  scientific  method  and  accumulated 
knowledge  so  important  in  modern  life.  Further,  it  is  hoped  that  through 
the  teachers  it  will  serve  those  boys  and  girls  who,  by  acquaintance  with 
nature,  will  come  to  adjust  themselves  more  intelligently  to  their  environ- 
ment, use  the  forces  of  the  universe  more  effectively,  and  be  happier  in  their 
enlarged  outlook. 

ELLIOT  R.  DOWNING 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 
THE  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION 
October  i,  1918 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION  .  . '    •  4 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS .  16 

KEY  TO  THE  COMMON  WEEDS  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION  .       .       .     •  .  17 

ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM    ..........  3° 

TREES 3$ 

KEY  TO  TREES  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION 42 

THE  SPORE-BEARERS S2 

ANIMAL  COMPANIONS 56 

BIRD-STUDY 67 

FIELD  KEY  TO  CHICAGO  BIRDS     .       . 85 

SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS 109 

THE  GARDEN                                       n6 


405974 


INTRODUCTION 

Secure  a  copy  of  the  outline  of  the  course  in  natural  science  in  the  Ele- 
mentary School  of  the  University  of  Chicago1  (or  similar  outline  for  other 
schools2).  Look  it  over  carefully  to  get  a  clear  notion  of  the  sort  of  work 
you  will  be  asked  to  do  when  you  come  to  teach  nature-study,  for  which 
this  course  in  part  attempts  to  prepare  you. 

Follow  carefully  the  directions  for  collecting  and  studying  the  materials 
suggested  in  the  outlines.  It  is  more  important  that  you  should  acquire 
correct  methods  of  studying  nature  material  and  the  point  of  view  of  the 
self-reliant  investigator  than  that  you  amass  information.  Answer  all 
questions  asked  and  make  all  drawings  and  diagrams  indicated  in  the  notes 
on  the  blank  pages  opposite  the  directions.  Notes  and  diagrams  are  to  be 
in  ink.  Use  Higgins'  waterproof  ink  for  the  drawings,  making  them  with  a 
fine  drawing-pen. 

1  Published  in  the  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XVIII  (February,  March,  and 
April,  1918);  also  reprinted  under  one  cover  and  available  at  the  School  of  Education 
bookstore. 

3  See  Nature-Study  Review,  Vol.  X,  No.  9  (December,  1914),  and  Vol.  XI,  No.  3 
(March,  1915);  also  Illinois  State  Course  of  Study,  published  by  C.  M.  Parker,  Taylor- 
ville,  Illinois. 


"SOME  COMMON  INSECTS 

Field  trip.— On  this  trip  take  a  couple  of  small  boxes,  a  small  bottle  of 
gasoline,  and  an  insect  net.  The  two  latter  items  will  be  furnished  you; 
provide  yourself  with  the  boxes.  Go  out  into  a  vacant  lot,  meadow,  or 
border  of  the  woods.  Turn  over  old  logs,  stones,  and  boards;  rip  the  bark 
off  of  stumps  and  capture  any  insects  or  other  small  animals  encountered. 
Watch  clusters  of  flowers  for  butterflies  and  bees,  pond  margins  or  marshy 
spots  for  dragon  flies.  Any  of  these  insects  except  bees  and  wasps  may  be 
picked  up  without  danger,  and  these  may  be  captured  with  a  net;  butter- 
flies and  dragon  flies  will  also  be  so  taken.  Spill  a  few  drops  of  gasoline  on 
the  abdomen  of  insects,  spiders,  etc.,  to  kill  them;  then  keep  them  in  the 
box.  Secure  the  following  insects:  a  butterfly  or  good-sized  moth,  a 
dragon  fly,  a  squash  bug  or  a  stinkbug,  a  beetle,  a  locust  or  a  grasshopper, 
a  bumblebee,  a  bluebottle  fly  or,  better  still,  a  horsefly.  Spiders,  thousand 
legs,  and  sow  bugs  also  will  probably  be  found.  Kill  them  with  the  gasoline 
and  bring  in  with  the  insects. 

Obtain  a  couple  of  crickets  and  put  them  alive  into  the  small  bottle. 

Insect  cage. — -Make  an  insect  cage  as  follows:  Fill  a  flowerpot  four 
inches  or  more  in  diameter  with  earth.  Plant  in  it  a  spray  of  sweet  clover 
or  other  available  plant.  Set  a  lamp  chimney  into  the  earth  over  the  plant 
and  tie  a  piece  of  cloth  over  the  top.  The  earth  should  of  course  be  kept 
moist. 

The  cricket. — 

Feeding  the  cricket. — Put  the  crickets  into  the  insect  cage.  They  will 
be  quite  at  home  in  this  cage  and  will  live  for  many  days.  Cut  a  thin, 
wedge-shaped  slice  of  apple  and  put  it  into  the  cage  with  the  edge  up.  The 
crickets  will  probably  mount  this  and  proceed  to  eat.  Notice  that  the 
cricket  has  several  pairs  of  mouth  parts,  one  pair  of  which  is  very  horny  and 
serves  to  crush  the  food;  the  other  pairs  are  used  to  hold  the  food  as  it  is 
eaten.  These  jaws  are  provided  with  little  finger-shaped  processes — jointed 
palps  that  serve  the  animal  as  feelers.  How  are  these  jaws  moved  as  the 
cricket  eats  ? 

Parts  of  a  cricket. — Notice  on  the  head  of  the  cricket  the  pair  of  long 
feelers,  or  antennae.  Can  you  demonstrate  how.  these  function?  Touch 
one  of  the  appendages  at  the  end  of  a  cricket's  body  and  see  if  he  is  aware 
of  it.  Notice  next  the  large  eyes,  each  occupying  a  good  share  of  the  side 

5 


IN  NATURE-STUDY 

of  the  head.  These  eyes  are  compound  eyes;  that  is,  they  are  made  of  a 
large  number  of  simple  eyes.  Thrust  your  finger  at  the  cricket  without 
touching  the  antennae.  Does  he  seem  to  see  well  ? 

Movements. — Watch  the  cricket  as  he  walks.  How  does  he  move  his 
legs?  Do  the  legs  always  move  in  the  same  order*?  Look  carefully  at 
the  cricket's  foot  and  notice  of  what  parts  it  is  made.  Draw  the  foot.  How 
do  the  hind  legs  differ  from  the  other  legs.  How  far  can  a  cricket  jump  ? 
See  how  many  times  its  own  length  a  grasshopper  can  jump.  How  far 
could  a  boy  jump  if  he  could  leap  as  far  in  proportion  to  his  length  ?  Study 
the  hind  leg  of  the  grasshopper  to  see  if  you  can  discover  what  appliances 
and  arrangement  of  parts  there  are  that  enable  him  to  jump  so  well.  What 
advantage  is  it  to  a  cricket  or  grasshopper  to  be  able  to  jump  ?  When  you 
pick  up  a  grasshopper  by  its  hind  leg  what  often  happens  ?  Would  this  be 
of  any  value  to  the  insect  ? 

Cricket  music. — The  cricket  is  perhaps  better  known  by  his  music  than 
by  his  appearance.  Undoubtedly  the  crickets  will  sing  while  they  are  con- 
fined in  their  cages.  Observe  how  this  is  accomplished.  Do  both  male  and 
female  crickets  chirp  ?  Can  you  think  what  possible  end  the  chirp  serves  ? 
How  can  you  tell  the  male  and  female  apart  ?  See  the  ear,  an  oval  disk,  on 
the  first  leg  of  the  animal. 

Breathing. — Observe  a  cricket  or  grasshopper  carefully  and  see  that  the 
abdomen  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  rings,  each  telescoped  into  the  one 
ahead  of  it.  These  rings  are  held  together  by  delicate  membranes  which 
cannot  ordinarily  be  seen  but  which  are  evident  when  the  abdomen  of  the 
locust  is  extended  in  the  egg-laying  process.  Watch  the  abdomen  carefully 
and  observe  that  it  is  constantly  expanding  and  contracting,  bellows-like. 
In  fact,  this  is  the  way  in  which  air  is  drawn  into  the  body.  These  insects 
do  not  breathe  through  their  mouths;  they  do  not  have  any  noses,  but  the 
air  is  taken  in  through  several  little  pores  that  can  readily  be  found  on  a 
grasshopper's  abdomen,  one  on  each  side  of  nearly  every  ring.  Draw  the 
abdomen  to  show  these. 

Egg-laying. — Watch  beside  the  sidewalks  for  a  grasshopper  laying  its 
eggs.  In  the  autumn  you  will  find  the  female  with  the  abdomen  thrust 
deep  into  the  ground,  the  insect  looking  as  if  the  abdomen  had  been  cut  off. 
Make  a  sketch  of  the  position  assumed  by  the  insect,  then 'lift  the  animal 
up  so  as  to  pull  the  abdomen  out  of  the  ground.  Note  how  long  the  abdo- 
men is.  Dig  up  the  soil  at  this  spot  and  see  if  you  can  find  the  cluster  of 
eggs.  Normally  they  remain  in  the  ground  until  the  following  spring,  when 
they  hatch  into  young  locusts,  or  grasshoppers,  as  we  commonly  call  them. 

Plagues  of  locusts  have  been  among  the  notorious  insect  phenomena 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  western  states  have  many  times  suffered 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS  7 

from  invasion  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust,  and  the  locusts  of  the  Old 
World  have  frequently  invaded  civilized  communities  and  have  played 
havoc  with  growing  crpps.  Read  the  article,  " Jerusalem's  Locust  Plague," 
in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  (Vol.  28,  p.  511,  December,  1915). 

Insect  collection. — If  an  insect  collection  is  to  be  made  each  pupil 
should  provide  himself  with  an  insect  net,  bicycle  oil  can  full  of  gasoline,  a 
deep  cigar  box,  a  sheet  of  cork,  and  insect  pins. 

Insect  net. — To  make  the  net  frame  use  an  old  broomstick  or  a  two- 
foot  length  of  bamboo  for  a  handle  and  a  forty-inch  length  of  stiff  wire  for 
the  hoop.  Bend  the  wire  so  that  the  ends  will  cross  each  other  six  inches 
from  their  tips;  twist  these  crossed  wires  about  each  other  two  or  three 
times.  Now  bend  the  ends  so  they  will  lie  on  opposite  sides  of  one  end  of 
the  handle  and  with  fine  wire  or  strong  cord  bind  the  net  frame  securely  to 
the  handle.  If  preferred,  the  wire  frame  may  be  soldered  to  a  brass  ferrule 
made  to  fit  onto  a  jointed  handle.  The  net  is  best  made  of  coarse  bobinet, 


FIG.  i. — Diagram  of  the  spreading-board 

although  cheesecloth  or  fine-meshed  mosquito  netting  will  do.  It  should 
be  about  eighteen  inches  deep  and  large  enough  around  to  fit  the  hoop. 
Sew  it  onto  the  wire  frame  and  then  bind  a  strip  of  cloth  over  the  wire  to 
prevent  wear. 

Box. — Glue  sheet  cork  to  the  bottom  of  the  cigar  box  in  which  the 
insects  are  to  be  kept,  stuck  on  pins  set  into  the  cork.  Insects,  like  bugs 
and  flies,  may  be  pinned  by  running  an  insect  pin  of  appropriate  size  through 
the  thorax;  beetles,  by  sticking  the  pin  through  the  right  wing  cover. 
Dragon  flies,  moths,  butterflies,  etc.,  must  be  spread  so  that  the  wings  will 
remain  expanded. 

Spreading-board. — For  spreading  the  wings  a  spreading-board  is  a 
necessity.  Take  two  soft-pine  boards  a  foot  or  more  long  and  three  or  four 
inches  wide.  Cut  two  strips  as  shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  i).  Then 
fasten  the  boards  to  these  ends  so  they  will  incline  toward  each  other  and 
have  a  groove  between  them.  Underneath  this  groove  fasten  another  strip 
of  pine  or  cork.  Run  the  pin  through  the  thorax  of  the  animal  and  stick 
its  point  into  this  lower  strip  of  cork  or  pine,  the  body  of  the  insect  in  the 
groove  of  the  spreading-board.  Fasten  the  wings  on  the  boards  by  means 


8  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

of  strips  of  paper  pinned  across  them.  Do  not  run  pins  through  the  wings. 
The  rule  adopted  by  collectors  is  to  fasten  the  wings  so  that  the  hind  margins 
of  the  fore  wings  will  make  a  straight  line  which  is  at  right  angles  to  the  long 
axis  of  the  insect's  body.  After  the  insect  has  been  on  the  spreading-board 
and  dried  for  several  days  it  may  be  put  into  the  insect  box.  While  the 
insect  is  on  the  board  the  board  should  be  kept  in  a  drawer  or  cupboard 
away  from  mice  and  insect  pests. 

What  is  an  insect? — Compare  the  dragon  fly,  squash  bug,  beetle,  locust, 
bumblebee,  fly,  and  butterfly.  These  are  all  insects.  What  characteristics 
have  they  in  common?  What,  then,  is  an  insect?  How  many  of  them 
have  a  hard  and  slippery  coat-of-mail  ?  Would  such  be  particularly 
serviceable  ? 

Adaptation  of  mouth  parts. — Note  the  sharp  sucking-tube  of  the  squash 
bug,  the  coiled  sucking-tube  of  the  butterfly.  The  latter  may  be  unrolled 
with  a  pin.  How  do  these  two  insects  feed  ?  Draw  the  head  of  the  latter 
insect  to  show  its  sucking-tube.  Which  of  the  insects  mentioned  above 
have  the  biting  mouth  parts  like  those  of  the  cricket  ? 

Classification. — -What  characteristics  have  spiders  and  insects  in  com- 
mon ?  In  what  ways  are  they  different  ?  How  are  the  thousand-legs  like 
spiders  and  insects  ?  How  different  ?  In  what  ways  are  the  sow  bugs  like 
the  other  forms  studied  ? 

Such  differences  and  resemblances  are  the  basis  of  the  classification  of 
animals  and  plants.  All  the  animals  here  studied  belong  to  one  group,  the 
subkingdom  Arthropoda.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  arthropod 
type? 

The  animal  kingdom  is  divided  into  subkingdoms  like  the  vertebrates, 
molluscs,  arthropods,  etc.  The  latter  group  is  subdivided  into  four  classes. 
What  are  they  ?  Give  example  of  each. 

Classes  are  divided  into  orders.     Fill  in  the  following: 

The  beetles  belong  to  the  order 

Butterflies  and  moths  belong  to  the  order 

Flies  belong  to  the  order 

Ants,  bees,  and  wasps  belong  to  the  order 

Bugs  belong  to  the  order 

Crickets  and  grasshoppers  belong  to  the  order 

Dragon  flies  belong  to  the  order 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS  9 

Orders  are  again  divided  into  families,  those  insects  with  family 
resemblances  being  classed  together.  Thus  the  crickets  belong  to  the  family 
Gryllidae.  Families  are  split  up  into  genera  and  each  genus  into  species. 
The  animals  that  are  practically  identical  all  go  to  make  up  one  species. 
Thus  all  tiger  swallowtail  butterflies  belong  to  the  species  Turnus,  all 
swallowtails  to  the  genus  Papilio.  The  scientific  name  of  an  animal  or 
plant  is  made  up  of  the  name  of  its  genus  and  species,  so  Papilio  turnus  is 
the  scientific  name  of  the  tiger  swallowtail. 

Butterflies. — See  specimens  of  the  following  butterflies  and  moths  in 
the  cases  of  the  school  museum  or  look  them  up  in  Holland's  Butterfly  Book 
and  Moth  Book.  Learn  to  know  them  so  you  can  recognize  them  in  the 
field:  monarch,  royal  fritillary,  great  spangled  fritillary,  Baltimore,  checker 
spot,  question-sign  anglewing,  comma  anglewing,  mourning  cloak,  red 
admiral,  painted  lady,  Hunter's  butterfly,  red-spotted  purple,  viceroy, 
little  wood  satyr,  common  wood  nymph,  great  copper,  bluet,  common  white 
cabbage  butterfly,  dog's-head,  sulphur,  pawpaw  swallowtail,  tiger  swallow- 
tail, spicebush  swallowtail,  pipevine  swallowtail,  eastern  swallowtail,  giant 
swallowtail,  and  silver-spotted  skipper. 

Life-history  of  the  butterfly. — In  the  late  spring  and  in  the  summer 
material  for  the  study  of  the  life-history  of  the  butterfly  is  easily  found. 
Look  over  cabbage  plants  for  eggs,  larvae,  and  chrysalids  of  the  cabbage 
butterfly.  The  adults  will  be  found  flying  over  the  cabbage  patch.  Look 
on  milkweed  for  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  of  the  milkweed  butterfly. 
Draw  the  eggs  on  the  leaf,  the  larva,  and  the  chrysalis.  Keep  the  larva  of 
some  butterfly  in  the  insect  cage  with  its  food  plant  until  it  pupates.  See 
this  process  if  possible.  A  few  days  later  the  chrysalis  will  open  and  the 
butterfly  will  emerge,  expand  its  wings,  and  be  ready  to  fly.  Watch  this 
also. 

Moths. — -The  following  moths  are  common  and  should  be  known: 
Cecropia,  polyphemus  promethea,  luna,  eight-spotted  forester,  imperial, 
royal,  bumblebee  moth,  tomato  hawk  moth,  Isabella,  lo,  cutworm  moth, 
tussock  moth,  silkworm  moth,  and  clothes  moth. 

Moth  larvae. — Look  for  the  larvae  of  the  moths.  The  larva  of  the  tomato 
hawk  moth  (a  big  green  "worm")  is  common  on  tomato  plants.  Cecropia 
larvae  ornamented  with  blue,  orange,  and  red  knobs  are  easily  located  on 
willow  twigs.  The  brown,  woolly  bear,  a  very  common  caterpillar,  is  the 
larva  of  the  Isabella  moth.  The  tussock  larvae  are  common  on  elm  trees. 
Put  any  of  these  in  the  insect  cage  together  with  sprays  of  the  food  plant 
stuck  into  the  moist  soil.  Supply  more  of  the  food  plant  as  the  supply  is 
eaten.  How  would  you  tell  one  of  these  "worms"  (that  are  really  insect 
larvae)  from  a  true  worm,  like  an  earthworm?  How  does  the  animal 


10  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

crawl?  How  does  it  eat?  Where  does  it  come  from?  The  Cecropia 
larva,  when  full  grown,  spins  a  silken  cocoon  in  which  the  chrysalis  remains 
during  the  winter.  Look  for  such  cocoons,  not  only  of  the  Cecropia  but 
of  other  moths.  Collect  several  for  study  (see  directions,  below).  The 
tomato  hawk  moth  larva  burrows  into  the  gound,  transforms  to  its  chrysalis, 
and  the  chrysalis  remains  there  until  the  moth  comes  out  of  it  the  following 
spring.  After  the  larva  has  disappeared  in  the  soil  of  the  pot  leave  it  a  few 
days  before  digging  up  the  pupa. 

The  leaves  of  the  following  plants  are  the  food  of  many  larvae;  look 
over  such  plants  to  secure  specimens  which  can  be  reared.  Basswood, 
butternut,  cherry,  hickory,  pawpaw,  poplar,  sassafras,  walnut,  willow, 
grape,  carrot,  parsley,  everlasting,  thistle,  and  violet. 

The  silkworm. — -One  of  the  most  interesting  moths,  because  of  its 
economic  value,  is  the  one  that  gives  us  our  silk.  Send  fifty  cents  to  the 
Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  410  W.  Twenty-seventh  Street,  New  York  City,  for  a 
batch  of  silkworm  eggs.  They  will  come  on  a  small  piece  of  card  which 
may  be  put  in  a  covered  tumbler  with  a  few  fresh  mulberry  leaves.  The 
eggs  will  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  tiny  larvae  will  crawl  onto  the  leaves 
to  feed.  Add  fresh  leaves  as  necessary  and  as  the  larvae  grow  transfer  them 
to  an  insect  cage  where  more  sprays  of  leaves  may  be  kept.  Keep  record 
of  the  length  of  a  newly  hatched  larva  and  of  its  length  on  successive  days 
as  it  feeds.  The  full-grown  larvae  will  spin  their  cocoons.  How  do  they 
do  it?  Is  the  silk  thread  continuous?  How  long  is  it  before  the  moth 
hatches  after  the  cocoon  is  complete  ?  Mating  and  egg-laying  follow,  and 
the  eggs  will  start  the  cycle  again. 

Study  of  the  Cecropia  cocoon. — -The  Cecropia  is  known  as  the  American 
silkworm.  Note  and  draw  shape  of  cocoon.  Cut  it  open  carefully  so  as 
not  to  injure  the  contained  pupa.  Is  the  silken  covering  tough  ?  Is  there 
variation  in  the  thickness  of  the  silken  covering?  (Compare  yours  with 
your  neighbors'.)  Can  you  see  in  the  pupa  the  eyes,  legs,  antennae,  abdom- 
inal segments  ?  What  advantage  is  the  cocoon  to  the  animal  ?  Draw  the 
pupa.  In  the  spring  the  pupa  transforms  to  the  moth  and  comes  out  of 
the  cocoon.  Watch  the  process  either  in  this  or  some  other  moth.  Let 
the  moth,  limp  and  bedraggled  as  it  comes  out,  crawl  up  on  some  support 
like  the  wire  sides  of  the  large  insect  cage  and  expand  its  wings.  Watch 
it  to  see  how  this  is  accomplished. 

Parasitism. — -You  will  be  quite  sure  to  find  that  some  of  the  Cecropia 
cocoons  are  full  of  small  silken  cocoons  instead  of  the  usual  pupa.  These 
cocoons  will  develop  into  ichneumon  flies  that  lay  their  eggs  in  the  larvae 
of  Cecropia.  The  young  feed  on  the  blood  and  later  on  the  internal  organs, 
killing  the  animal  but  often  not  until  it  has  spun  its  cocoon.  If  opportunity 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS  n 

occurs,  watch  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  the  great  ichneumon,  Thalessa, 
depositing  its  eggs  in  the  larvae  of  wood-boring  beetles.  At  least  see  the 
specimen  of  this  insect  in  the  museum,  noting  the  very  long  ovipositor,  and 
read  "The  Bewitched  Cocoons"  and  "The  Most  Marvellous  Drill  in  the 
World"  in  William  Hamilton  Gibson's  Sharp  Eyes. 

Ants — a  study  of  an  animal  community. — 

Directions  for  making  nest. — Cut  a  piece  of  glass  4  by  5  inches  or  any 
convenient  size,  or  use  for  the  foundation  of  the  nest  an  old  4  by  5  negative. 
The  gelatin  film  can  be  cleaned  off  the  negative  if  the  latter  is  soaked  in 
water  for  a  little  while.  Cut  some  glass  strips  one-half  inch  wide  from 
any  old  window  glass.  It  is  best  to  use  glass  of  single  thickness  and  to  use 
window  glass  rather  than  picture  glass,  since  the  former  is  softer  and  less 
difficult  to  cut.  To  cut  glass  secure  a  wheel  glass-cutter  from  the  hardware 
store,  for  five  or  ten  cents.  Lay  a  ruler  on  the  glass  a  little  to  the  left  of 
the  line  along  which  the  cut  is  to  be  made  and,  holding  the  glass-cutter  as 
you  would  a  pencil  in  writing,  draw  it  along  the  glass  beside  the  ruler, 
using  just  enough  pressure  to  make  the  wheel  cutter  "bite"  the  glass.  You 
can  tell  this  best  by  the  noise.  Any  school  child  can  cut  window  glass,  for 
no  great  strength  is  needed.  When  the  scratch  is  made  place  the  thumbs 
on  top  of  the  glass  near  the  edge  on  opposite  sides  of  the  scratch  and  press 
upward  with  the  bent  first  fingers  held  below  the  glass. 

The  walls. — Fasten  the  half-inch  strips  along  the  edges  of  the  founda- 
tion glass  with  ordinary  glue,  laying  the  strips  flat,  i.e.,  with  the  broad  side 
down.  Leave  a  half-inch  opening  at  one  corner  for  a  door.  Cement  a 
second  strip  on  top  of  each  first  strip,  so  as  to  make  this  glass  wall  two 
thicknesses  of  glass  high,  in  .order  to  allow  enough  space  for  the  ants  to 
move  around  freely  inside  the  nest.  With  strips  of  glass  divide  the  nest 
into  two  rooms,  leaving  a  space  between  this  partition  wall  and  the  outer 
wall  to  serve  as  a  door.  Cut  some  black  cambric  or  calico  into  strips  an 
inch  wide  and  glue  it  to  the  edge  of  the  nest  all  the  way  around,  letting  it 
lap  over  on  the  top  of  the  wall  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  foundation  glass. 
This  makes  an  opaque  covering  for  the  wall  of  the  nest,  like  a  passe-partout 
binding. 

Ventilation. — Cut  some  strips  of  Turkish  toweling  an  inch  wide.  Turn 
in  the  edges  of  this  toweling  so  that  they  meet,  thus  making  a  half-inch 
strip  that  is  double.  Now  cement  these  turned-in  edges  to  the  top  of  the 
half -inch  strips  that  form  the  walls  of  the  nest.  Cut  pieces  of  glass  of  proper 
size  to  cover  each  room  of  the  nest  and  lay  them  on  the  Turkish  toweling 
for  a  roof.  The  toweling  admits  enough  air  to  ventilate  the  rooms.  Since 
ants  are  accustomed  to  live  in  the  dark,  pieces  of  cardboard  should  be  cut 
the  same  size  as  the  glass  covers  for  each  room  and  laid  over  the  nest. 


12  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

When  the  nest  is  in  use,  keep  the  parts  in  place  by  drawing  a  rubber  band 
around  them.  When  the  nest  is  lying  on  the  table,  light  is  excluded  from 
the  under  side  by  the  table,  from  the  edges  by  the  black  binding,  and  from 
above  by  the  pieces  of  cardboard.  Cut  a  thin  slice  of  sponge  and  place 
in  the  inner  room.  The  nests  should  stand  a  few  days  to  dry  out,  as  the 
odor  of  glue  is  not  an  agreeable  one  even  to  ants. 

Directions  for  stocking  and  caring  for  the  ants'  nest. — Take  a  pint  fruit 
jar  with  its  cover  and  go  out  to  where  ants  are  abundant.  Dig  up  an  ants' 
nest  or  break  to  pieces  an  old  log  or  stump  in  which  are  found  the  galleries 
of  the  large  black  carpenter  ant.  Look  for  the  eggs,  larvae,  or  pupae.  The 
eggs  are  tiny  white  grains,  the  larvae  look  much  like  rice  grains,  while  the 
pupae  look  like  puffed  rice  grains.  Scoop  these  up  with  the  ants  and  dump 
them  into  the  pint  jar;  more  or  less  dirt  and  debris  will  be  taken  up  at  the 
same  time.  Cover  and  bring  the  material  back  to  the  schoolroom.  Set 
the  completed  ants'  nest  on  the  bottom  of  a  large  shallow  tin  pan;  see  that 
the  sponge  in  it  is  moist.  Set  this  pan  in  a  still  larger  one  partly  filled  with 
water.  The  inner  pan  must  at  no  point  touch  the  rim  of  the  outer.  Dump 
the  material  brought  in  from  the  field  down  beside  the  nest.  As  the  debris 
dries  out  the  ants  will  take  their  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  into  the  nest. 
When  this  is  accomplished  plug  the  front  door  of  the  nest  with  a  wad  of 
absorbent  cotton.  The  nest  may  now  be  taken  out  and  kept  on  the  table 
for  observation. 

Feeding  the  ants  and  cleaning  the  nest. — A  bit  of  peanut  the  size  of  the 
head  of  a  pin  or  a  bit  of  sponge  cake  dipped  in  honey  may  be  put  into  the 
nest  once  a  week.  A  shred  of  raw  meat  may  occasionally  be  given  the  ants. 
Uneaten  remnants  of  the  food  should  be  removed  within  twenty-four  hours. 
To  clean  the  nest  remove  the  cardboard  cover  from  one  room.  The  ants 
will  take  their  material  all  into  the  dark  room.  Then  plug  the  door  between 
the  two  rooms  and  wipe  out  the  vacant  room  with  a  cloth  moistened  in 
alcohol.  Let  the  room  stand  open  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  until  the  alcohol 
fumes  have  disappeared.  Remove  the  plug  from  the  door,  cover  this  room, 
and  uncover  the  other.  Then  the  process  may  be  repeated  in  the  second 
room. 

Habits. — Watch  the  ants  you  have  to  see  how  they  busy  themselves. 
Can  you  distinguish  queen,  drones,  and  workers  ?  Are  there  soldier  ants 
present?  Which  members  of  the  community  feed  the  larvae  or  young 
ants?  Do  the  ants  of  the  community  seem  to  communicate  with  each 
other?  If  so,  how?  Do  they  feed  each  other ?  How  does  the  ant  clean 
itself  ?  Watch  the  nests  of  ants  out  of  doors  to  see  what  the  animals  are 
doing.  Among  other  things  you  will  find  that  the  ants  whose  nests  are 
in  the  sand  will  be  busy  bringing  grains  of  sand  out  of  the  nests  and  carrying 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS  13 

sand  grains  in  again.  Can  you  explain  this  apparently  foolish  process  ?  In 
the  late  summer  and  early  fall  you  will  find  a  great  many  winged  ants  com- 
ing out  of  the  nests.  These  are  mostly  males  getting  ready  for  the  nuptial 
flight.  Find  out  what  the  nuptial  flight  is  and  the  events  that  happen  at 
this  time. 

Aphids. — Look  for  plant  lice  on  the  succulent  fall  weeds,  or  on  the 
plants  in  the  garden.  You  will  find  most  of  them  with  their  sucking-tubes 
imbedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  plant  from  which  they  are  drawing  their  food. 
Some  of  them  may  be  the  winged  males  and  females.  You  will  often  find 
ants  visiting  these  colonies  of  aphids.  Watch  the  ants  to  see  what  they 
do  to  the  aphids.  Read  Bulletin  131  of  the  University  of  Illinois  Agri- 
culture Experiment  Station  on  the  "Behaviour  and  Habits  of  the  Cornfield 
Ants."  Read  also  W.  M.  Wheeler's  Ants  (pp.  267-93  and  318-36).  Look 
up  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  rate  of  reproduction  in  the  plant  lice. 

Wasps. — If  possible  find  in  th6  woods  or  around  the  barn  nests  of  the 
paper  wasps,  or  under  the  eaves  of  the  house,  barn,  or  outbuildings  the 
clay  nests  of  the  mud-dauber  wasps.  Watch  the  wasps  to  learn  as  much 
as  possible  of  their  habits.  Procure  some  old  nests  of  either  the  paper  wasps 
or  the  mud  dauber  and  examine  their  method  of  construction.  Can  you 
make  out  the  life-history  of  the  animal  ? 

Dragon  fly. — Watch  a  dragon  fly  in  its  flight.  Time  it  in  seconds  as  it 
flies  from  one  point  to  another.  Measure  the  distance  and  see  how  many 
miles  an  hour  it  is  going.  Listen  to  the  hum  of  a  bee  and  devise  a  way  to 
tell  how  many  times  it  flaps  its  wings  in  a  second.  Observe  on  what  the 
dragon  fly  feeds.  Watch  to  see  how  many  it  eats  in  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes.  What  other  names  has  a  dragon  fly?  Are  they  justified  by 
facts?  Watch  the  dragon  fly  as  it  flies  over  stream  or  pond.  Can  you 
observe  it  in  the  act  of  depositing  eggs?  The  young  which  hatch  from 
these  we  shall  study  later.  Draw  the  wing  of  the  dragon  fly.  Weigh  the 
wings  and  the  rest  of  the  animal  separately.  What  is  the  relative  weight 
of  wings  and  body  in  a  modern  aeroplane?  In  what  direction  do  most 
supporting  veins  run  in  the  wing  of  the  dragon  fly  ?  In  what  part  of  the 
wing  are  they?  What  is  the  advantage  of  this?  Compare  the  bracing 
of  the  veins  in  this  wing  with  the  system  of  ribs  and  braces  in  an  aeroplane 
wing. 

Insect  color. — Examine  the  wing  of  a  butterfly  under  the  low  power  of 
the  microscope.  Rub  the  wing  with  the  finger  and  examine  the  rubbed 
spot  again.  What  have  you  on  your  finger?  With  what  are  the  wings 
covered?  How  are  these  arranged  on  the  wings?  Examine  a  spot  of 
color.  To  what  is  it  due?  What  is  the  color  of  the  real  grasshopper? 
the  katydid?  the  locust?  Where  do  the  two  former  live?  the  latter? 


14  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Was  the  cabbage-butterfly  larva  at  all  hard  to  find  ?  What  other  larvae 
are  green  and  what  advantage  does  this  color  give  them  ? 

Are  bees  and  wasps  easy  to  find  ?  What  other  animals  that  are  abun- 
dantly able  to  care  for  themselves  are  also  conspicuously  colored  ?  Is  the 
tussock-moth  larva  brightly  colored  ?  Do  birds  eat  it  ?  Feed  the  brightly 
colored  larvae  of  a  milkweed  butterfly  to  chickens.  Will  they  eat  it? 
Would  you  judge  the  milkweed  butterfly  to  be  palatable?  What  other 
larvae  besides  that  of  the  tussock  moth  do  you  know  to  be  hairy  ?  Is  there 
any  evidence  that  these  hairs  are  irritating  to  the  skin  ? 

Look  at  specimens  of  the  walking-stick  beetle  in  the  school  museum; 
of  the  anglewing  butterfly  on  the  dead  leaves;  and  specimens  of  several 
moths  on  pieces  of  bark  in  cases  to  show  protective  colors.  The  red- 
spotted  purple  and  viceroy  butterflies  are  closely  related,  both  belonging 
to  the  same  genus.  The  viceroy  butterfly  looks  much  like  another  common 
butterfly  to  which  it  is  only  distantly  related.  Which  is  this?  Might 
this  resemblance  possibly  profit  the  viceroy  ?  Why  is  the  bumblebee  moth 
so  named  ?  Which  animal  profits  by  the  resemblance  ?  Of  these  several 
examples  given  which  would  you  classify  under  protective  coloration? 
warning  coloration  ?  mimicry  ? 

House  fly. — Obtain  some  manure,  or  some  refuse  from  the  kitchen  and 
put  an  inch  of  this  material  in  the  bottom  of  a  jelly  tumbler.  Capture 
several  house  flies  and  put  them  in  the  tumbler,  covering  the  latter  with  a 
piece  of  cheesecloth  held  on  by  a  string  or  rubber  band.  See  if  you  can 
observe  the  flies  laying  their  eggs.  How  many  are  laid  ?  In  a  short  time, 
probably,  larvae  will  appear.  Likely  some  of  these  will  crawl  down  next 
to  the  glass  when  they  pupate.  How  long  is  it  before  young  flies  appear  ? 
Fruit  flies  found  in  and  about  baskets  of  grapes  or  peaches  may  readily  be 
bred  if  several  are  put  in  a  test  tube  with  a  piece  of  fully  ripe  banana, 
plugging  the  top  of  the  tube  with  a  piece  of  absorbent  cotton.  The  flies 
are  small,  but  the  stages  in  the  life-history  show  plainly  and  they  occupy 
little  room.  Locate  in  the  block  in  which  you  live  places  where  fly  larvae 
or  maggots  are  found.  Any  collection  of  decomposing  matter  is  likely  to 
contain  them.  Manure  piles,  garbage  cans,  lawn  clippings,  and  garden 
refuse  are  likely  places,  and  they  may  be  found  in  heaps  of  rags,  under  bits 
of  paper  or  oilcloth,  or  almost  anywhere  where  the  larvae  can  keep  moist. 
On  the  opposite  page  draw  a  map  of  the  block  in  which  you  live  and  show 
on  it  by  red  dots  where  you  find  the  house  fly  breeding. 

Rate  of  reproduction. — Look  up  data  in  regard  to  the  rate  of  propagation 
of  the  fly.  How  many  generations  may  there  be  in  a  single  summer  ? 
How  many  eggs  does  the  female  lay?  How  long  does  it  ordinarily  take 
from  the  time  the  eggs  are  laid  until  the  adult  flies  are  grown?  Starting 


SOME  COMMON  INSECTS  15 

with  a  single  pair  of  flies  in  April,  how  many  offspring  will  there  be  by  fall, 
provided  none  die  ?  Where  do  the  flies  that  appear  in  the  spring  come  from  ? 
Why  is  it  especially  difficult  to  keep  flies  out  of  the  house  in  the  fall  ?  What 
are  some  of  the  best  measures  to  take  to  exterminate  the  fly  ? 

Make  tabulations  on  the  blank  pages  with  the  following  headings  and 
fill  in  information  regarding  the  injurious  and  beneficial  insects  in  so  far 
as  you  can  from  your  own  knowledge  or  from  books  easily  available  in  the 
library. 

1.  INJURIOUS  INSECTS 

NAME   OF   INSECT  WHAT   IT   INJURES  METHOD    OF   COMBATING 

2.  BENEFICIAL  INSECTS 

NAME   OF   INSECT  IN   WHAT   WAY   IT   IS   BENEFICIAL 

Spiders. — Locate  a  web  of  the  large  garden  spider  and  capture  an 
insect  like  the  cricket  or  grasshopper.  Throw  it  into  the  web.  Observe 
what  the  spider  does,  and  especially  look  to  see  how  it  spins  the  silk  in  which 
it  wraps  its  prey.  On  the  blank  page  opposite  make  a  sketch  of  the  web. 
What  is  the  advantage  of  a  web  ?  Do  you  know  of  any  other  animal  or 
plant  traps  found  hereabout  ?  If  you  can  find  a  spider  spinning  its  web 
observe  how  this  is  accomplished.  Find  somewhere  about  the  house  a 
cobweb.  Do  the  strands  have  any  definite  arrangement?  Find  on  the 
grass  the  web  of  the  funnel  weaver.  Where  does  the  spider  stay  in  this 
web  ?  Look  under  sticks  and  stones  for  wolf  spiders.  They  are  swift  run- 
ners and  the  females  will  be  found  carrying  the  round  silken  egg  case.  On 
the  ground  and  on  tree  trunks  will  be  found  some  of  the  jumping  spiders. 
How  do  they  capture  their  prey  ?  Look  on  the  fall  asters  anjd  sunflowers 
for  specimens  of  the  crab  spider.  Watch  on  the  field  trips  for  the  young 
spiders  sailing  through  the  air  on  the  tufts  of  their  silk. 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS 

Making  a  collection. — Collect  within  a  radius  of  four  blocks  of  this 
building  as  many  different  kinds  of  weeds  as  you  can.  Obtain  two  speci- 
mens of  each  weed,  six  inches  or  so  in  length,  to  show  shape  of  leaf,  stem, 
characteristics  of  the  blossom  and  fruit  if  possible.  Number  these  weeds. 
At  the  same  time  collect  samples  of  the  seeds  of  the  weeds,  a  thimbleful 
of  each.  Keep  these  in  papers  folded  to  hold  them  and  numbered  to  cor- 
respond to  the  weeds.  Dampen  one  set  of  the  weeds  collected  and  keep 
them  in  a  box  for  identification  later.  Spread  each  specimen  of  the  other 
set  between  the  leaves  of  an  old  magazine  with  unglossed  pages  or  between 
sheets  of  newspaper.  Put  them  at  once  under  a  heavy  weight  to  press. 
Change  the  paper  at  the  end  of  twelve  and  again  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 


FIG.  2. — Sample  cover  decoration  for  Weed  Book 

hours  so  that  they  will  dry  rapidly,  else  the  specimens  will  not  retain  their 
natural  colors. 

After  they  have  been  in  press  for  ten  days  they  may  be  mounted  on 
sheets  like  the  following.  Mount  one  specimen  on  a  sheet  by  touching 
tube  glue  to  several  points  on  the  back  of  leaf,  stem,  and  fruit,  then 
laying  it  in  the  desired  position  on  the  sheet.  After  identification  (see 
below)  label  each  weed  with  its  proper  name,  both  common  and  scientific, 
and  with  the  name  of  the  family  to  which  it  belongs.  Arrange  the  sheets 
on  which  the  weeds  are  mounted  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  Gray's 
Manual  of  Botany.  (You  will  find  this  in  the  library.)  This  will  bring 
all  weeds  of  the  same  family  together.  You  will  be  expected  to  know  at 
least  fifty  weeds  and  to  have  half  that  number  in  your  collection.  It  will 
be  wise  to  include  in  the  collection  the  ones  you  find  it  most  difficult  to 
remember.  There  follows  also  a  heavy  paper  cover  for  the  weed  book. 
Bind  the  weed  mounts  in  it  after  you  have  printed  the  cover.  You  may 
make  an  attractive  cover  design  either  in  black  or  color  or  simply  print  the 
words  "Weed  Book"  upon  it.  (See  illustration,  Fig.  2.) 

16 


Weed  collection  of . 
Common  name 
Scientific  name 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family .  '. 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family , 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name.  .  . 
Family 


Weed  collection  of 
Common  name .  .  . 
Scientific  name .  .  . 
Family 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS  17 

Weed-seed  collection. — Take  two  old  photographic  negatives  4  by  5  or 
5  by  7  size.  Clean  off  the  gelatin  so  that  the  glass  is  clear.  Cut  a  piece 
of  thick  cardboard  or  picture  mat  of  the  same  size  as  the  glass.  With  a 
cork-cutter  or  auger  punch  out  a  series  of  five-eighth-inch  holes  in  the  card 
with  three-eighth-inch  spaces  between  them,  leaving  a  half-inch  between 
,  the  outside  holes  and  the  edges  of  the  card.  Lay  this  card  on  the  clean 
glass.  Put  the  seeds  you  have  collected  in  the  holes,  one  kind  in  each, 
printing  the  name  of  the  weed  from  which  they  came  below  the  hole. 
Place  the  seeds  so  that  those  from  plants  in  the  same  family  may  be 
in  adjacent  holes,  the  families  arranged  in  order.  Cover  with  the  other 
clean  glass  and  bind  with  passe-partout  paper. 

Impure  seed. — Look  up  in  any  garden  magazine  or  the  spring  numbers 
of  home  magazines  the  addresses  of  some  seed  houses.  Send  for  small 
quantities  of  clover,  grass,  or  some  vegetable  seed  like  cabbage  or  onion. 
Look  these  seeds  over  to  see  if  they  contain  any  weed  seed,  comparing  with 
your  weed-seed  collection  and  with  the  more  extensive  collections  in  the 
laboratory.  What  sort  of  seeds  would  be  most  likely  to  contain  weed 
seeds  ?  What  precautions  could  the  gardener  take  to  make  sure  his  seed 
is  pure  ? 

Weed  identification. — There  follows  a  key  to  the  common  weeds  of  the 
Chicago  region.  Use  this  in  finding  the  names  of  the  fresh  specimens  of 
your  weeds  until  you  feel  sure  you  can  identify  them  with  certainty. 

You  may  work  in  co-operation  with  other  members  of  the  class,  learn- 
;ing  from  them  the  names  of  weeds  they  have  identified,  but  do  enough 
of  the  work  yourself  to  be  ready  to  pass  a  test  on  the  use  of  the  Key  when 
|  you  are  given  an  unknown  to  determine.  Ada  M.  Georgia's  Manual  of 
the  Weeds  (Macmillan)  gives  descriptions  and  pictures  of  all  the  weeds. 
;  (See  the  library  copy.)  Many  government  and  state  pamphlets  on  weeds 
!  are  to  be  had  for  the  asking  or  at  very  low  prices.  A  list  of  some  of  the 
best  of  these  is  given  in  the  Source  Book  of  Biological  Nature  Study. 

KEY  TO  THE  COMMON  WEEDS  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION:  References  to 
Gray's  New  Manual  of  Botany,  7th  Edition.  Directions:  Choose  the 
first  one  of  headings  I-IX  that  fits  the  specimen  you  are  determining. 
Then  choose  between  a,  aa,  b,  bb,  etc.,  until  you  reach  the  name  of  the 
weed  you  have  in  hand. 

KEY  TO  THE  COMMON  WEEDS  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION 

I.  Weeds  with  milky  juice 

a — Leaves  with  entire  or  nearly  entire  margins 
b — Leaves  small,  i  inch  or  less  in  length 


i8 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


Spurges 

Milk  Spurge 

Flowering  Spurge 


Dogbane 

Indian  Hemp 

The  Milkweeds 

Swamp  Silkweed 

Swamp  Milkweed 

Dandelion 
Wild  Lettuce 

Prickly  Lettuce 
Sow  Thistle 


c — Leaves  not  awl-pointed  (Fig.  3  a) 

d — Low 
dd — Tall,  much  branched 

There    are    several    other    species,    not 
usually  occurring  as   weeds   (see  Gray, 
P-  545) 
cc — Leaves  awl-pointed 

d — Leaves  all  with  stem  (petioled) 
dd — Upper    leaves    at    least    without    stem 

(sessile) 
bb — Leaves  large 

c — Fields  and  roadsides 
cc — Swamps 

aa — Leaves  with  lobed  or  cut  margins 
b — Leaves  in  a  rosette 
bb — Leaves  not  resetted,  but  prickly 
c — Midrib  prickly 
cc — Midrib  not  prickly,  but  margins  prickly 

d — Stem  of  plant  prickly 
dd — Stem  of  plant  not  prickly 

Several  other  species  of  Lettuce  occur  in 
the  Chicago  region,  not  commonly  as 
weeds  (see  Gray,  p.  866) 

II.  Weeds  with  compound  leaf  (Figs.  3 b  and  3c) 
a — Leaves  of  three  leaflets 

b — A  woody  vine  often  appearing  shrubby;  berries 
white.  "Leaflets  three,  quickly  flee.  Berries 
white,  take  to  flight"  Poison  Ivy 

bb — Herbs  of  low,  prostrate  habit 

c — Flowers  in  dense  clusters  (head  or  spike) 

d — Blossoms  white  (several  species)         White  Clover  (see  Gray] 
dd — Blossoms  red  Red  Clover 

ddd — Blossoms  pink  Alsike  Clover 

dddd — Blossoms  yellow 

e — Blossom  cluster  as  large  as  thumb  nail  Hop  Clover 

ee — Blossom  cluster  (spike)  only  as  large 

as  little-finger  nail  Black  Medick 

cc — Flowers  single,  leaves  of  acid  flavor  Wood  Sorrel 

bbb — A  tall,  much-branched  plant;   flowers  in  long 
slender  clusters 

c — Blossoms  white  White  Sweet  Clover 

cc — Blossoms  yellow  Yellow  Sweet  Clover 

aa — Leaves  of  more  than  three  leaflets 
b — Once  pinnately  compound 

c — Flowers  purple  or  rose,  in  clusters 

Vetch  (several  species;  see  Gray,  p.  525) 
cc — Flowers  yellow  like  buttercup  Cinque  foil  (Gray,  p.  481) 


FIG.  3 

a,  an  awl-pointed  leaf,  tip  only;  b,  a  pinnately  compound  leaf,  reduced;  c,  a  palmately  compound  leaf, 
reduced;  d,  leaves  whorled,  reduced;  e,  an  obovate  leaf,  reduced;  /,  fruit  of  the  great  dock,  Rumex 
Britannica,  enlarged;  g,  fruit  of  the  yellow  dock,  Rumex  crispus,  enlarged;  ft,  fruit  of  the  pale  dock, 
Rumex  altissimus,  enlarged;  i,  fruit  of  the  swamp  dock.  Rumex  verticillatus,  enlarged;  j,  fruit  of  the 
bitter  dock,  Rumex  obtusifolius,  enlarged;  k,  fruit  of  the  beggartick,  enlarged;  /,  saw-toothed  (serrate) 
leaf  margin;  m,  crenate  leaf  margin;  n,  a  halbert-shaped  leaf,  reduced;  0,  pod  of  evening  primrose; 
p,  pod  of  shepherd's-purse,  enlarged;  q,  a  cruciform  blossom  from  shepherd's-purse;  r,  stamens  and  pistil 
of  a  cruciform  blossom. 


20 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


Sweet  Cicely 


bb — Several  times  compounded  making  a  lacy  leaf 
c — Leaf  when  crushed  with  odor  of  licorice 
cc — Leaf  without  odor  of  licorice  when  crushed 
d — Flowers  white,  rose,  or  purplish 

e — Flower  clusters  concave  or  bird-nest- 
like  Wild  Carrot,  Bird's  Nest,  or  Queen  Anne's  Lace 
ee — Flower  clusters  not  concave 

/ — Stem    smooth    and    striped    with 

purple 

ff — Stem  grooved 
dd — Flowers  yellow 

e — Flower  clusters  concave 
ee — Flower  clusters  not  concave 
/ — Stem  smooth 
ff—  Stem  grooved 
ILL.  Twining  and  climbing  weeds 
a — Leafy 

b — With  cordlike  or  ropelike  underground  stems 
c — Flowers  morning-glory-like;  an  inch  across 
cc — Flowers     morning-glory-alike;     considerably 

more  than  an  inch 

bb — With  very  large  fleshy  roots  and  morning-glory- 
like  blossoms 

bbb — With   ordinary  fibrous   roots;    flowers   incon- 
spicuous 

aa — Leafless-stem  orange,  like  string,  twisted  about 
supporting  plants  upon  which  it  is  parasitic 

IV.  Weeds  that  lie  low  and  form  dense  mats  or  rosettes  on 
the  ground 
a — Plants  matted  rather  than  in  rosettes 

b — Leaves  thick  and  succulent  Wild  Portulaca  Purslane 

bb — Leaves  round  or  kidney-shaped,  wavy  margins 
c — Flowers  purple 

cc — Flowers  pink,  fruit  button-shaped 
bbb — Leaves  whorled  (Fig.  3^) 

c — Stem  harsh  and  roughened  with  prickers 
cc — Stem    not    prickly;    greenish   white,    star- 
shaped  flowers 

bbbb — Leaves  not  succulent,  round,  or  whorled 
c — Stems  swollen  at  nodes 
cc — Stems  not  swollen  at  nodes 

d — Spiny    bracts    at    base    of   leaves,  root 

pink 
dd — No  spiny  bracts;  flower  greenish- white 


Water  Hemlock 
Cow  Parsnip 

Wild  Carrot 

Meadow  Parsnip 
Water  Parsnip 


Field  Bindweed 


Hedge  Bindweed 


Wild  Sweet  Potato 


Black  Bindweed 


Dodder 


Ground  Ivy 
Cheeseweed 

Bed  Straw 

Indian  Chickweed 

Knotweed 


Low  Amaranth 
Common  Chickweed 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS  21 

aa — Plants  in  rosettes 

b — Leaves  densely  hairy 

c — Leaves  large,  flowers  yellow  on  tall  stalk  Mullein 

cc — Leaves  small,  flowers  in  pussy-foot  clusters  Everlasting 

bb — Not  densely  hairy 

c — Leaves  long,  a  foot  or  more,  and  narrow; 
fruit  corky-winged,  borne  in  great  quantity 
on  an  upright  stalk  Dock 

The  species  are  shown  by  sketches  of  indi- 
vidual fruits  (Figs.  $J-j) 

cc — Leaves  not  so  long,  with  conspicuous  coarse 
fibers  that  are  tough  and  pull  out  like  string 
d — Leaves  half  as  "broad  as  long  Plantain 

dd — Leaves  one-fourth  as  broad  as  long  or  less 

Ribwort  or  Buckthorn 

V.     Weeds  with  prickles  or  thorns  on  the  stem,  leaves,  or 
fruit  (for  those  that  also  have  milky  juice  see  I,  p.  17) 
a — With  prickles  or  thorns  on  fruit  only 
b — Fruit  a  pod  or  capsule 

c — Fruit  egg-shaped,  i  inch  or  so  long 

d — Fruit   green,    blossom    white,    trumpet- 
shaped  Jimson  Weed 
dd — Fruit  purple,  blossom  purple,  trumpet- 
shaped                                                              Purple  Thornapple 
cc — Fruit  like  a  flat  peapod,  breaking  into  spiny 

segments  Tick  Treefoil 

bb— Fruit  a  "bur" 

c — Fruit  as  large  as  last  joint  of  finger 

d — Covered  with  strong  spines,  leaves  three- 

lobed  Clotbur  (for  species  see  Gray,  p.  829) 

dd — Covered  with  weak  hooked  spines,  basal 

leaves  heart-shaped  Burdock 

cc — Fruit  as  large  as  finger  nail,  flat,  ovoid  Hound's  Tongue 

ccc — Fruit  small,  ovoid,  spiny  Beggar's  Lice 

bbb — Fruit  seedlike 

c — Covered  with  long  spines;  a  grass  Sand  Bur 

cc — Spines  only  on  one  end  (Fig.  zk)  Sticktights  or  Beggarticks 

aa — With  prickles  on  stem  or  leaves  as  well  as  on  fruit 
b — Fruit  spiny;    yellow  spines  at  base  of  lance- 
shaped  leaves  Spiny  Clotbur 
bb — Fruit   (berry),  leaves,   and   stem  bear   yellow 

spines  Buffalo  Bur 


22 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


aaa — Fruit  not  spiny;    only  stem  or  stem  and  leaves 
spiny 
b — Flowers  conspicuous 

c — Flowers  clustered  in  heads  Thistles 

d — Heads  of  bloom  small,  |-inch  diameter  Canada  Thistle 

dd — Heads  of  bloom  large 

e — Bracts  on  flower  head  spreading  and 

prickly;  leaves  decurrent  on  stem  Bull  Thistle 

ee — Bracts  on  flower  head  appressed,  inner 
not  prickly 

/—Leaves  whitish  above,  plant  low  Shore  Thistle 

//"—Leaves  creamy,  woolly  Pitcher's  Thistle 

/(/"—Leaves  greenish  above 

g — Stem  of  flower  head  leafy,  plant 

stem  furrowed  Roadside  Thistle 

gg — Stem  of  flower  head  not  leafy 

h-*- Stem  high  Swamp  Thistle 

hh — Stem  low  Pasture  Thistle 

cc — Flowers  solitary,  violet,  star-shaped;    fruit 

an  orange  berry;   stem  with  yellow  spines  Horse  Nettle 

bb — Flowers  inconspicuous 

c — Stem  grooved;  spines  at  base  of  leaves  Spiny  Amaranth 

cc — Stem  streaked  with  red;  leaves  spiny  Russian  Thistle 

VI.  Weeds  with  strong  odor 
a — Odor  of  onion 

b — Leaves  nearly  i  inch  or  even  more  in  width  Wild  Leek 

bb — Leaves  linear 

c — Flower    cluster    bulbiferous;     capsule    not 

crested  Wild  Garlic 

cc — Flower    cluster    not    bulbiferous;     capsule 

crested  Wild  Onion 

aa — Odor  of  Mint 

b — Conspicuous  whitish  or  purplish  bracts  below 
the  flower  cluster 

c — Heads  of  bloom  terminal  Wild  Bergamot 

cc — Heads  of  bloom  axillary  Horsemint 

bb — No  conspicuous  bracts  below  flower  cluster 
c — Flowers  in  terminal  spikes 

d — Leaves  lance-shaped  with  toothed  edges 
(Fig.  3/) 

e — Leaves  sessile  or  nearly  so  Spearmint 

ee — Leaves  petioled  Peppermint 

dd — Leaves  heart-shaped  with  serrate  edges 

(Fig.  3^)  Catmint 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS  23 

cc — Flower  clusters  in  axils  of  leaves 

d — A  tall  erect  plant  with  woolly  leaves  Horehound 

dd — A  low  plant  with  small  smooth  leaves  Pennyroyal 

aaa — With  neither  onion  nor  mint  ordor;   leaves  much 
dissected,  fernlike 

b—  Flowers  white  in  flat-topped  clusters  Western  Yarrow 

bb — Flowers  yellow 

c — In  flat-topped  clusters  Tansy 

cc — In  daisy-like  heads;  odor  disagreeable 

d — Head  ^-inch  across  Dog  Fennel 

dd— Head  larger  Stinking  Willie 

VII.  Weeds  with  simple  leaves  that  are  opposite 
a — Leaf  edges  entire 

b — Fruit  a  berry  inclosed  in  a  balloon-like  calyx 

(for  species  see  Gray,  p.  714)  Ground  Cherry 

bb — Fruit  not  a  berry 
c — Flowers  red 

d — Leaves  heart-shaped  Umbrellawort 

dd — Leaves  lance-shaped;  calyx  lobes  extend- 
ing beyond  corolla  Corn  Cockle 
ddd — Leaves  linear                                                            Red  Campion 
cc— Flowers  orange                                                           Butterfly  Weed 
ccc — Flowers  pink;  in  terminal  clusters  Soapwort 
cccc — Flowers  white,  looking  like  pinks                             White  Campion 
ccccc— Flowers  blue,  looking  like  pinks                                 Ragged  Robin 
aa — Leaf  edges  toothed  or  lobed 
b — Stem  not  square 

c — Leaves  deeply  palmately  cut 

d — Almost  compound;  lobes  linear  Wild  Hemp 

dd — Lobes  broad  Giant  Ragweed 

cc — Leaves  only  toothed 

d — Leaf  base  heart-shaped;   plant  provided 

with  stinging  hairs  Stinging  Nettle 

dd — Leaf  base  not  heart-shaped;  no  stinging 
hairs;  small  flower  clusters  with  white  ray 
flowers  Galinsoga 

bb — Stem  square 

c — Blue  flowers  in  terminal  spikes  Vervain 

VIII.  Weeds  with  simple  leaves;  the  leaves  alternate 
a — Leaves  with  entire  edges 

b — Leaves  linear  or  very  narrow 
c — Plants  with  yellow  flowers 
d — Flowers  good  sized 

e — Flowers  spurred,  two-lipped  Butter  and  Eggs 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


Brown-eyed  Susan 


Goldenrods 


Asters 


ee — Flowers  with  black  dots  along  the 

edges  of  the  yellow  petals  Common  St.  John's- wort 

dd — Flowers  small  but  in  good-sized  clusters 
e — Flower  clusters  daisy-like,  with  brown 

center 
ee — Flower  heads  clustered  into  brilliant 

masses  of  yellow 

eee — Flowers  green,  fruit  a  nutlet  with 
corky  wings  (see  "Dock"  under  IV, 
p.  20) 

cc — Plants  with  white  or  purple  flowers  in  daisy- 
like  heads 
bb — Leaves  lance-shaped 

c — Leaves  sessile,  with  sheathing  stipules;  one 
of  the  smartweeds  with  pink  flowers  and 
crescent-shaped,  purple  blotches  on  the 
leaves  is  known  as  lady's-thumb  (see  Gray 
for  other  species) 
cc — Leaves  petioled;  plant  large,  with  purple 

berries  having  red  juice 
ccc — Some    asters,    goldenrods,    and    sunflowers 

come  here  (see  Gray  for  species) 
bbb — Leaves  halbert-shaped  (Fig.  3^),  of  acid  flavor, 

ovoid 

bbbb — Leaves  large;  root  large  and  pink 
aa — Leaves  with  toothed  or  wavy  edges 

b — Leaves  broad,  oval  or  halbert-shaped 

c — Leaves,  at  least  the  basal  ones,  ovate; 
sometimes  three-pointed,  like  a  goose's  foot 
d — Blossoms  green,  inconspicuous;  seeds 

black 

dd — Blossoms  white,  like  potato  plant;   fruit 
a  purple  berry 


Smartweed 


Pokeweed 


Sheep  Sorrel 
Rough  Amaranth 


Lamb's-Quarters 


cc — Leaves  halbert-shaped  (Fig.  3») 


Nightshade 
Halbert-leaved  Orach 


bb — Leaves  narrow,  at  least  the  lower  ones  lance- 
shaped 
c — Individual  flowers  large 

d — Flowers  yellow;    seed  pods  four-angled 

(Fig.  30) 
dd — Flowers  purplish,  pink,  or  whitish 

e — Flowers  clustered  in  terminal  racemes 
ee — Flowers   solitary   at   ends   of   upper 

branches 

cc — Individual  flowers  small,  in  daisy-like  heads 
d — Ray  flower'white 


Evening  Primrose 


Willow  Herb 


Gaura 


dd — Ray  flower][purplish 


Canada  Fleabane 
Philadelphia  Fleabane 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS 


aaa — Leaves,  at  least  basal  ones,  deeply  cut 

b — Seed  pods  numerous,  small,  lozenge-shaped,  and 

peppery  to  taste 
bb— Seed  pods  numerous,   heart-shaped,    flattened 

(Fig.  3/0 
bbb — Seed  pods  not  as  above 

c — Leaves  cut  into  linear  lobes 

d — Flowers  yellow,  cruciform  (see  Fig.  39) 
e — Leaves  sweet-scented  but  with  very 
bitter  taste;    flower  clusters  in  leaf 
axils 
ee — Leaves  with  strong,  unpleasant  odor; 

flower  clusters  at  end  of  branches 
cc — Leaves  merely  irregularly  cut,  not  in  linear 
lobes 

d — Flowers  in  heads 

dd — Flowers  not  in  heads,  yellow,  cruciform 
e — Flowers  \  inch  across;  seed  pods  with 
long  beak 

/ — Basal  leaves  lance-shaped 
ff — Basal  leaves  reverse  lance-shaped 
ee — Flowers^  inch  across;  pod  four-angled 
eee — Flowers  |  inch  across ;  pod  round  and 
hairy 

Other  species  occur,  but  usually  not  as 
weeds  (see  Gray,  p.  426) 


Pepper  Grass 
Shepherd's- Purse 


Wormwood 
Ragweed 


Oxeye  Daisy 
The  Mustards 


Charlock 
White  Mustard 
Black  Mustard 

Hedge  Mustard 


A  study  of  a  single  weed. — Select  some  weed  with  good-sized  flowers, 
like  bouncing  Bet,  Jimson  weed,  evening  primrose,  or  wild  mustard. 
First,  examine  the  whole  plant  out  of  doors  and  notice  the  parts — root, 
stem,  leaf,  blossom,  and  fruit.  Dig  out  the  plant  to  see  the  extent  of  the 
root  system.  Sweet  clover  is  a  good  weed  to  try  this  on  for  comparison, 
for  the  roots  are  tough  and  may  be  readily  traced.  Moreover,  on  its  roots 
are  often  found  those  nodules  of  nitrifying  bacteria  so  characteristic  of 
the  legumes.  Some  member  of  the  class  should  look  up  and  report  on  such 
plants  and  their  use.  Write  out  an  abstract  of  this  report. 

Cut  a  cross-section  of  the  stem  and  see  the  ring  of  fibro vascular  bundles. 
These  are  particularly  well  shown  in  the  leaf  stem  of  another  weed,  plantain. 
Let  each  pupil  break  this  stem  and  see  how  tough  the  stringy,  fibrovascular 
bundles  are.  Take  hold  of  one  and  pull  it  out;  note  how  it  runs  up  into 
the  leaf,  branching  and  forming  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  leaf  vein.  Draw 
the  leaf  stem  to  show  the  fibrovascular  bundles. 

Flower. — In  the  wild  mustard  note  the  four  sepals  on  the  outside  of 
the  flower  at  its  base.  Altogether  they  constitute  the  calyx.  Within  these 


26  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

* 

are  the  four  yellow  petals  making  up  the  corolla.  These  inclose  and  protect 
the  essential  parts  of  the  blossom,  stamens,  and  pistil.  Four  of  the  stamens 
are  of  equal  length,  two  others  longer.  Note  that  each  stamen  consists  of 
(i)  a  basal  stalk,  the  filament,  which  bears  (2)  an  elongated  case,  the  anther, 
in  which  the  pollen  is  held.  You  have  probably  noticed  this  yellow  dusty 
pollen  in  the  Easter  lily  or  possibly  in  the  buttercup  and  as  a  child  have  put 
your  nose  into  some  flower  for  the  purpose  of  getting  it  colored  with  the 
yellow  pollen.  At  the  center  of  the  flower  is  the  pistil,  made  up  of  (i)  a 
swollen  base,  the  ovary,  (2)  a  stalk-like  style,  with  (3)  a  sticky  knob  at  its 
end,  the  stigma.  Parts  similar  to  these  will  be  found  in  any  of  the  other 
flowers. 

Origin  of  fruit. — Examine  a  mustard  plant  old  enough  to  show  the  seed 
pods.  Where  are  the  largest  seed  pods  ?  Following  up  the  younger  and 
younger  ones  you  see  that  the  seed  pod  arises  from  what  ?  With  a  sharp 
knife  make  a  section  of  such  a  large  ovary  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  nasturtium 
blossom  or  mandrake.  There  will  be  seen  a  number  of  tiny  objects  looking 
like  diminutive  seeds.  These  are  really  the  ovules.  In  them  are  the  eggs, 
tiny  things  that  can  be  seen  only  under  the  microscope.  Read  up  the 
process  by  which  the  egg  is  fertilized  by  means  of  the  pollen  and  what  hap- 
pens in  consequence  and  write  a  statement  of  it  that  would  be  intelligible 
to  a  sixth-grade  child. 

All  living  things  from  eggs. — Open  mature  pea  pods.  Do  you  find,  in 
some  of  them,  in  addition  to  the  well-formed  peas,  some  tiny  objects  grow- 
ing where  you  would  expect  a  pea  to  be  ?  These  are  the  ovules  whose  eggs 
were  inadequately  fertilized.  Unless  the  egg  in  the  ovule  is  fertilized  it 
does  not  grow  into  the  new  little  plant.  It  is  well-nigh  universally  true 
that  except  among  the  very  simplest  animals  and  plants  every  living  thing 
comes  from  an  egg  and  that  this  must  be  fertilized  before  the  developmental 
process  will  begin. 

Anemophilous  and  entomophilous  flowers. — Fertilization  is  so  important 
that  plants  have  many  devices  to  make  it  certain.  Some  flowers  are  self- 
pollinated;  that  is,  the  pollen  of  the  stamens  is  dusted  onto  the  stigma  of 
the  same  flower.  Such  flowers  do  not  need  to  open  at  all.  But  as  a  rule 
the  pollen  is  carried  to  another  flower,  for  it  has  been  proven  that  more 
seeds  and  seeds  with  greater  vitality  are  produced  by  cross-pollination 
than  by  self-pollination.  In  general  the  plant  either  depends  for  cross- 
pollination  (i)  on  an  abundance  of  pollen  so  that  the  wind  will  carry  it 
from  flower  to  flower  or  (2)  on  insect  visitors.  The  ragweed  is  an  example 
of  a  wind-pollinated  plant.  Shake  a  large  plant  of  this  kind  growing  in 
the  field  and  see  it  "smoke"  as  the  pollen  falls  in  clouds.  Such  wind- 
fertilized  plants  usually  have  inconspicuous  blossoms. 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS 


27 


Color,  perfume,  nectar. — The  showy  flower  is  an  advertisement  to  the 
insects  that  their  presence  is  desired.  The  attractive  color  is  often  supple- 
mented by  pleasing  odors.  The  visiting  insect  is  also  enticed  by  nectar. 
You  have  probably  bitten  off  the  spur  of  a  violet  or  a  columbine  blossom 
to  taste  this.  Color  lines  and  blotches  on  the  blossom  sometimes  point 
the  way  to  the  desirable  nectar.  As  in  the  ancient  world  all  roads 
led  to  Rome,  so  in  the  flower  world  all  lines  lead  to  the  nectar. 
(Read  W.  Hamilton  Gibson's  "Welcome  of  the  Flowers"  in  Harper's 
Magazine,  LXXXVIH,  551-56.  This  will  give  an  idea  of  the  devices 
found  in  blossoms  to  insure  their  cross-pollination  by 
insects.) 

Personal  observations. — Study  some  particular 
plant  to  see:  (i)  how  many  insects  come  to  a  blossom 
like  milkweed,  horsemint,  fireweed,  or  red  clover  in  an 
hour;  (2)  whether  one  sort  of  insect,  like  the  bumblebee, 
fly,  butterfly,  or  honeybee,  confines  its  attention  to  a 
particular  flower  or  whether  the  flower  in  question 
welcomes  all  sorts  of  insects;  (3)  in  what  ways  a 
particular  flower  is  adapted  to  a  particular  insect. 
The  following  are  some  good  plants  to  watch:  butter 
and  eggs,  spotted  balsam,  evening  primrose  (why 
"evening"?),  beardtongue,  horsemint,  nightshade, 
Jimson  weed,  and  rose  mallow.  Record  your  observa- 
tions on  the  opposite  page. 

The  study  of  a  familiar  weed,  a  dandelion. — Dig  up  a  dandelion.  What 
sort  of  a  root  has  it  ?  Is  this  an  advantage  or  disadvantage  to  the  plant  ? 
Do  dandelion  roots  have  a  commercial  value  ?  How  are  the  leaves  of  the 
dandelion  arranged?  Name  some  other  plants  that  have  the  rosette 
habit.  In  what  way  is  this  profitable  to  the  plant  ?  Do  dandelions 
blossom  early  in  the  spring  ?  Can  you  see  what  makes  this  possible  ? 
Draw  an  outline  of  a  dandelion  leaf.  Is  the  shape  of  the  leaf  in  any  way 
dependent  upon  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  plant?  What  is  the  taste 
of  a  dandelion  leaf  ?  Would  this  be  of  any  service  to  the  plant  ?  What 
is  commonly  called  the  dandelion  blossom  is  really  a  cluster  of  blossoms, 
each  one  very  small.  Compare  a  single  blossom  with  this  sketch,  and 
record  the  parts  as  we  have  seen  them  in  our  study  of  the  mustard  flower. 
What  benefit  would  the  plant  derive  from  having  the  tiny  blossoms  bunched 
as  they  are  here  or  in  a  clover  bloom?  Observe  a  dandelion  plant  in 
blossom.  Are  the  stalks  on  which  the  blossom  clusters  are  held  standing 
up  straight  or  lying  down  ?  Do  the  stalks  bearing  the  seed  cluster  or  "  blow 
balls"  stand  up  or  lie  down?  What  is  their  position  in  wet  weather? 


FIG.  4. — Single 
flower  of  dandelion. 


28  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

What  is  the  position  of  the  cluster  in  which  the  fruits  are  yet  unripe? 
Examine  one  of  the  fruits  with  its  silky  parachute.  What  position  does 
it  take  when  sailing  in  the  air  ?  Take  hold  of  the  parachute  and  gently 
pull  what  appears  as  the  seed  between  thumb  and  finger.  Do  you  feel  the 
tiny  points  on  it  ?  Move  it  in  the  opposite  direction.  Do  the  projections 
have  their  points  turned  up  or  down  ?  Of  what  use  are  these  hooks  to  a 
ballooning  seed  ? 

Weed  travelers. — 'List  on  the  opposite  page  fifty  of  the  weeds  you  know 
and  indicate  in  each  case  of  what  part  of  the  world  the  weed  is  a  native. 
The  information  can  be  found  in  Gray's  Manual  or  similar  botanical  texts. 
Unless  it  is  stated  that  the  plant  was  introduced  from  some  foreign  locality 
the  presumption  is  that  it  is  native  to  North  America.  Would  you  call 
weeds  good  travelers?  Find  the  facts  regarding  the  date  of  introduction 
of  the  Russian  thistle  to  this  country  and  the  rate  of  its  spread;  of  Jimson 
weed;  of  deadly  nightshade. 

Definition. — A  weed  might  be  defined  as  an  eminently  successful  plant 
growing  where  man  does  not  want  it.  It  is  because  they  are  such  bold, 
adventurous,  capable  organisms  that  they  are  interesting.  Let  us  inquire 
why  weeds  are  so  successful  that  they  perpetually  threaten  man's  attempt 
to  cultivate  his  corps. 

Rate  of  seed  production. — Most  of  them  produce  enormous  quantities 
of  seeds.  Count  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pod  of  the  wild  mustard,  bouncing 
Bet,  or  any  other  annual.  Count  also  the  number  of  pods  on  one  good- 
sized  plant.  How  many  seeds  does  this  plant  bear  ?  On  the  basis  of  this 
average  calculate  how  many  years  it  would  take  to  cover  the  land's  sur- 
face, starting  this  year  with  a  single  plant  and  supposing  that  all  seeds  find 
a  place  to  grow  and  none  die.  Can  you  find  out  from  any  source  how  many 
seeds  single  plants  of  the  following  weeds  produce:  white  mustard,  tall 
pink  root,  lamb's-quarters,  purslane  ?  Lift  out  a  square  foot  of  soil  two 
inches  deep  from  some  spot  in  a  vacant  lot  and  put  it  in  a  shallow  box. 
Keep  it  moist,  in  the  schoolroom,  and  count  the  number  of  weeds  that 
appear.  In  the  same  way  take  up  the  next  four  inches  of  soil  and  record 
the  number  of  weeds  that  grow  from  it.  It  will  be  interesting  to  find  out 
to  what  depth  there  are  weed  seeds  that  will  germinate.  There  are  stories 
printed  occasionally  in  the  newspapers  that  seeds  buried  along  with  mum- 
mies in  the  old  Egyptian  days  have  germinated  when  planted.  Find  out 
what  experiments  have  shown  to  be  the  maximum  length  of  life  of  seeds 
and  record  the  result  here. 

Methods  of  dispersal. — Seeds  have  facilities  for  wide  dispersal.  Why 
is  it  essential  that  seeds  should  be  carried  away  from  the  parent  plant? 
List  here  some  of  those  that  are  carried  by  wind  and  draw  three  such. 


A  STUDY  OF  AUTUMN  WEEDS  29 

enlarged,  to  show  different  devices  for  wind  carriage.  Examine  the  fruits 
of  the  sour  or  curly  dock  and  draw  one  enlarged.  Can  you  think  how  the 
corky  rim  of  this  seed  would  serve  in  carrying  it  to  new  locations  ?  Draw 
a  bur  of  the  cocklebur.  How  are  such  seeds  carried  ?  List  some  other 
weeds  whose  fruits  are  carried  in  a  similar  way.  Of  the  two  seeds  in  a  bur 
of  the  cocklebur,  one  germinates  the  first  spring  after  production,  the  other 
not  until  the  second  spring.  How  would  this  be  advantageous  ?  Touch 
the  ripe  pods  of  the  wild  balsam.  What  happens  ?  Find  out  how  the  wild 
cucumber  spreads  its  seeds.  (Read  Lubbock's  Flowers,  Fruits  and  Seeds, 
pp.  52-66.)  Many  weed  seeds  are  eaten  by  birds,  and  some  of  them  are  so 
hard-shelled  that  they  pass  through  the  digestive  tract  unharmed.  Most 
of  them  are  digested,  however.  If  the  seeds  or  fruits  are  poisonous,  would 
it  be  advantageous  to  the  plant  ?  Find  some  figures  to  show  how  many 
weed  seeds  are  eaten  by  birds.  See  report  from  Yearbook,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  S.  H.  Judd,  " Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers."  Enter  on  the 
opposite  page  some  of  the  facts  given  in  this  report. 

Other  methods  of  propagation. — Weeds  reproduce  also  by  other  means 
than  seeds.  Many  have  underground  stems  that  run  along  under  the  sur- 
face and  send  up  new  shoots  at  intervals.  When  these  underground  stems 
are  cut  in  pieces  by  plowing  or  spading,  each  piece  may  produce  a  new  plant. 
List  some  that  have  this  habit.  Many  weeds  send  out  runners  that  strike 
root  at  their  tip;  name  some.  Some  have  prostrate  or  decumbent  stems 
that  strike  root  at  each  node;  name  some  of  these.  Suppose  such  weeds 
were  tramped  upon  by  cattle,  broken  into  pieces  by  their  sharp  hoofs,  and 
at  the  same  time  pressed  into  the  ground,  how  would  it  profit  the  plant  ? 
Name  some  pasture  plants  that  behave  so. 

Protection. — What  weeds  have  some  very  adequate  means  of  protec- 
tion? Name  some  that  have  specific  devices  for  keeping  warm. 

The  following  weeds  are  protected  from  browsing  animals  as  indicated : 

is  protected  by  stiff  hair. 

is  protected  by  disagreeable  taste. 

is  protected  by  irritating  juices. 

is  protected  by  thorns  on  its  stems. 

is  protected  by  prickers  on  its  leaves. 

has  fruit  covered  by  prickers. 


ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM 

Field  trip.— On  this  trip  the  student  should  be  provided  with  a  net 
similar  to  the  one  used  for  insects.  The  wire  frame  must  be  very  strong 
and  the  net  need  only  be  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  deep.  Several  pint  jars 
or  wide-mouthed  bottles  should  be  taken.  Go  to  pond  or  stream  margin 
and  dredge  for  animals.  Look  under  stones  for  crayfish  and  capture  some. 
Dredge  along  the  weedy  bottom,  dumping  the  contents  of  the  net  into  a  pint 
jar.  Take  this  back  to  the  schoolroom  for  later  examination.  Dredge  out 
material  from  several  spots  along  the  shore  and  dump  the  material  obtained 
on  a  bare  spot  on  the  ground.  Pick  out  the  animals  as  they  wriggle  out 
of  the  material  and  put  them  in  the  pint  jars  partly  filled  with  water.  You 
will  probably  have  little  difficulty  in  collecting  the  water  sow  bug  and  the 
bender,  both  fair-sized  relatives  of  the  crayfish.  Try  to  obtain,  also, 
dragon-fly  and  damsel-fly  nymphs,  mosquito  larvae,  larvae  of  the  water 
beetle,  the  May  fly,  and  the  stone  fly.  Take  these  back  to  the  schoolroom 
in  the  pint  jars.  If  possible  secure  specimens  of  diving  beetles,  water 
boatmen,  back  swimmers,  and  water  scorpions,  and  learn  to  know  the 
whirligig  beetle,  water  strider,  caddis-fly  larva,  and  the  common  water 
spider.  Quite  likely  several  trips  may  be  necessary  to  secure  this  material. 
Take  back  in  the  jars  some  of  the  plants  found  growing  in  the  water.  On 
the  return  to  the  schoolroom  put  several  sprays  of  plants  in  the  aquarium 
jar  on  your  desk  and  then  dump  in  the  animals  brought  back  from  the  trip 
that  you  especially  wish  to  save.  Fresh  water  may  be  added  from  the  tap. 

Study  of  crayfish  and  its  relations.— Put  the  crayfish  in  a  small  glass 
dish  or  shallow  pan  that  is  partly  filled  with  water.  Notice  the  parts  of  the 
animal.  In  what  ways  is  it  like  an  insect  ?  in  what  ways  different  ?  How 
does  it  compare  with  the  land  sow  bug  ?  How  many  feet  has  it  ?  Does 
it  use  them  all  in  walking  ?  Does  it  have  any  other  means  of  locomotion  ? 
Stick  your  pencil  point  down  near  it.  How  does  it  behave  ?  How  many 
of  the  feet  are  provided  with  pinchers  ?  Are  the  great  pinchers  on  the  fore- 
legs of  equal  size  in  all  specimens  ?  Can  you  account  for  this  ?  What  sense 
organs  can  you  see  that  the  animal  possesses  ?  How  are  the  feelers  used  ? 
Darken  half  of  the  dish:  does  the  crayfish  distinguish  between  light  and 
dark  ?  As  the  animal  stands  quietly  in  the  dish  look  squarely  at  him  from 
in  front.  What  do  you  see  moving  ?  Drop  a  little  powdered  chalk  into 
the  water  just  in  front  of  him.  How  does  this  move  as  it  sinks  near  him  ? 

.30 


ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM  31 

Can  you  detect  his  method  of  breathing  ?  Look  at  the  prepared  museum 
specimens  showing  the  gills.  Probably  some  of  the  specimens  collected 
will  bear  eggs.  Where  are  these  attached  ?  Look  up  the  life-history  and 
see  if  the  eggs  develop  into  nymphs  or  larvae. 

Plankton. — Compare  the  water  sow  bug  and  the  bender  with  the  cray- 
fish. In  some  of  the  material  that  has  been  brought  back  from  the  pond 
and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  jars  you  will  probably  see  some  very  much 
smaller  relatives  of  the  crayfish.  Learn  to  recognize  the  Daphnia,  Cyclops, 
and  Cypris.  These  crustaceans,  while  apparently  insignificant,  are  of 
large  economic  importance.  Find  out  their  use.  Find  out  how  abundant 
they  are  in  lake  or  river  water,  and  also  how  rapidly  they  reproduce.  The 
sum  total  of  small  plants  and  animals  floating  or  swimming  in  the  water  is 
known  as  the  plankton.  Find  out  from  books  how  much  there  is  of  it  in 
ordinary  lake  or  river  water. 

Study  of  the  dragon-fly  nymph. — In  the  material  dredged  up  from  the 
pond  the  nymphs  of  the  dragon  fly  and  the  damsel  fly  will  undoubtedly  be 
found.  These  as  well  as  other  insect  larvae  may  be  determined  by  the 
accompanying  key.  In  our  insect  study  we  have  observed  dragon  flies 
laying  their  eggs.  The  eggs  hatch  into  the  tiny  nymphs.  Have  you  the 
nymphs  of  more  than  one  kind  of  dragon  fly  ?  Lift  one  of  the  good-sized 
nymphs  from  the  water  and  observe  the  construction  of  the  accessory 
jaws  borne  on  the  arm  that  hinges  below  the  mouth.  You  can  gently  take 
hold  of  this  pair  of  accessory  jaws  and  extend  the  arm.  How  would  they 
serve  in  capturing  prey  ?  Keep  some  of  the  largest  of  the  dragon-fly  nymphs 
in  a  jar  by  themselves,  supplying  them  freely  with  smaller  insect  larvae  for 
food.  Put  a  stick  in  the  jar  so  that  it  will  project  above  the  water  and  cover 
the  jar  with  a  piece  of  cloth.  Probably  some  of  the  nymphs  will  mount  the 
stick  and  transform  into  the  adult  dragon  fly.  The  process  is  well  worth 
watching.  Look  on  the  grasses  and  rushes  along  the  margin  of  the  pond 
for  such  cast-off  skins. 

The  mosquito's  life-history. — You  will  probably  find  mosquito  larvae 
or  pupae  in  the  water  brought  back  from  the  pond.  If  not,  make  a  special 
trip  for  them.  The  larvae  are  the  wrigglers  often  found  in  a  rain  barrel  or 
other  stagnant  water.  Put  several  of  them  into  a  tumbler  of  water  and 
watch  their  movements.  When  undisturbed  where  do  they  rest?  Are 
they  lighter  or  heavier  than  water?  Is  it  an  effort  for  them  to  go  down 
under  the  water?  How  do  they  accomplish  this?  Do  they  have  jaws? 
Learn  to  recognize  the  pupa.  What  is  its  position  at  rest  ?  Make  a  sketch 
of  the  larva  and  of  the  pupa.  Cover  the  tumbler  in  which  there  are  a 
number  of  pupae  and  watch  for  the  transformation  of  the  pupa  into  the 
adult  mosquito.  Where  does  the  adult  stand  while  it  is  drying  its  wings  ? 


32  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Put  a  couple  of  minnows  or  other  small  fish  into  the  aquarium  where 
there  are  mosquito  larvae  and  pupae.  What  happens  ?  Put  a  number  of 
larvae  into  each  of  two  tumblers  two-thirds  full  of  water.  Drop  a  drop  of 
kerosene  oil  on  the  surface  of  the  water  of  one  of  these  tumblers.  What 
happens  ?  What  practical  application  is  made  of  this  ? 

Movements  of  animals  of  pond  and  stream.— How  does  the  dragon-fly 
nymph  usually  move  ?  Poke  at  it  with  your  pencil  and  see  in  what  other 
way  it  moves.  You  may  have  to  read  to  some  extent  to  understand  how 
it  accomplishes  this.  Is  the  diving  beetle,  Dytiscus,  heavier  than  water  or 
lighter  ?  How  does  it  swim  ?  Is  its  shape  one  that  would  fit  it  for  move- 
ment through  water?  How  are  the  legs  adapted  to  swimming?  Watch 
the  swimming  of  the  giant  water  bug,  the  back  swimmer,  the  water  boat- 
man. How  do  they  swim  and  how  are  they  structurally  adapted  to  so 
moving  ?  Draw  some  one  of  them  and  make  an  enlarged  sketch  of  the  leg 
to  show  the  adaptations.  Watch  the  water  spider  or  the  water  strider  as  it 
runs  on  the  water.  Sketch  the  shadow  of  the  water  strider  seen  on  the 
bottom  of  pond  or  aquarium.  How  does  the  strider  accomplish  the  miracle 
of  walking  on  the  water?  Blow  a  soap  bubble  with  a  pipe  and  let  the 
bottom  of  it  rest  on  the  surface  of  the  soapy  water,  then  lift  the  pipe.  Is 
the  bubble  drawn  out  of  shape  ?  This  shows  what  ?  Hold  a  fine  needle 
between  thumb  and  finger  a  very  short  distance  above  the  water  in  a  full 
tumbler,  the  needle  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  Let  it  drop  to  the 
surface.  If  the  experiment  is  done  carefully  the  needle  will  remain  on  the 
surface.  Look  up  the  experiment  with  the  Mensbrugge  float  and  try  it. 

Is  the  goldfish  heavier  than  water,  lighter,  or  of  the  same  specific 
gravity  ?  Are  you  heavier  than  water  or  lighter  than  water  ?  Why  then 
does  one  drown  ?  Does  a  fish  have  anything  in  its  body  that  helps  to  keep 
it  afloat  ? 

If  you  were  to  cut  through  the  fish's  body  from  snout  to  tail  what  would 
be  the  outline  of  the  surface  exposed?  Draw  it.  Draw  the  outline  to 
represent  the  line  on  which  the  hull  of  a  boat  cuts  the  surface  of  the  water. 
What  is  the  shape  of  a  submarine?  How  many  fins  has  the  goldfish  (or 
the  chub)  ?  Where  are  they  located  ?  How  are  they  used  ?  What  fins 
does  the  fish  use  chiefly  in  swimming  ?  How  does  it  turn  around  ?  How 
does  it  turn  toward  the  surface?  Watch  the  turtle  in  the  water.  What 
methods  of  locomotion  has  it  ?  How  does  it  swim  ?  Watch  a  snail ' '  crawl. ' ' 
How  does  it  do  it  ?  Can  it  crawl  on  the  surface  of  the  water  ?  Can  it  swim  ? 

Breathing.— What  is  the  position  of  the  diving  beetle  when  at  rest? 
of  the  back  swimmer?  Take  Dytiscus  out  of  the  water;  lift  up  the  elytra 
or  horny  wing  covers.  Note  the  membranous  underwings,  the  ones  he 
really  uses  in  flight.  What  else  is  between  the  elytra  and  the  abdomen  ? 


ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM  33 

What  do  you  find  on  the  segments  of  the  abdomen  ?  Examine  one  with 
the  hand  lens  and  draw  what  you  see.  Can  you  now  tell  why  he  assumes 
his  resting  position?  Probably  some  of  the  other  water  beetles  in  the 
aquarium  will  show  a  silvery  mass  on  the  abdomen.  Examine  the  abdomen 
of  such  an  animal  when  taken  from  the  water.  Is  it  still  silvery?  With 
what  is  it  covered  ?  Dip  a  mullein  leaf  in  water  and  note  its  appearance. 
What  is  your  conclusion  ?  What  device  has  the  mosquito  larva  to  facilitate 
breathing  ?  How  does  the  pupa  breathe  ?  Observe  the  rat-tailed  maggot 
and  the  water  scorpion  to  see  how  they  have  solved  the  problem  of  respira- 
tion under  water.  (Find  out  from  books  if  specimens  are  not  to  be  had.) 
How  has  man  solved  the  same  problem  ?  Read  up  on  the  life-habits  of  the 
diving  spider  and  find  out  where  her  eggs  are  laid  and  how  she  supplies  her 
young  with  air.  Did  insects  probably  originate  in  the  water  and  later 
come  to  live  on  land,  or  are  they  essentially  land  animals,  some  of  which 
have  taken  to  water  ? 

How  does  the  fish  breathe  ?  Fill  a  small  wide-mouthed  bottle  with 
carbonic-acid  gas  from  a  generator  and  tie  a  piece  of  Bologna  sausage  skin 
over  the  mouth.  Drop  it  into  a  pint  fruit  jar  one-third  full  of  water.  Test 
i  the  water  at  once  with  litmus  paper  to  see  if  it  is  acid.  Cover  the  jar.  Test 
the  water  again  after  it  has  stood  for  a  few  hours.  What  is  the  application 
of  this  experiment  to  the  breathing  of  a  fish  or  of  yourself  ?  Examine 
larvae  of  the  following  insects  and  see  if  you  find  gills :  damsel  fly,  May  fly, 
and  stone  fly. 

How  does  the  turtle  breathe?    the  frog?     Many  of  the  water  snails 
have  a  lung  cavity,  the  opening  into  which  may  be  seen  beside  the  shell. 

Capture  of  prey  and  feeding. — Watch  the  dragon-fly  larvae  in  the 
aquaria.     Are  they  active  or  sluggish  ?    Are  they  easily  seen  ?    How  do 
they  secure  their  food  ?     Watch  the  larva  of  the  diving  beetle,  known  as 
"the  water  tiger,"  in  an  aquarium  where  there  are  water  sow  bugs,  benders, 
j  or  insect  larvae.     How  does  it  secure  its  food  ?    Put  an  "  electric  light  bug  " 
j  or  giant  water  bug  into  the  aquarium  with  a  couple  of  small  fish  or  a  small 
frog.     Watch  to  see  how  he  captures  the  animals.     Notice  the  position  in 
I  which  the  front  legs  are  carried.     Observe  their  structure  to  see  how  they 
!  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  capture  of  the  prey.     Notice  the  front  legs 
'  of  the  water  boatman,  the  back  swimmer,  and  the  water  strider.     Pick  up 
the  "electric  light  bug,"  holding  it  between  the  thumb  and  finger  by  the 
edges  of  the  body.     Notice  the  mouth  parts  are  arranged  to  form  a  sucking- 
tube.     This  is  one  of  the  structural  peculiarities  of  the  bugs.     This  type  can 
inflict  a  painful  wound,  so  be  careful  in  handling  the  insect.     Knowing  the 
;  structure  of  the  mouth  parts  it  will  now  be  easier  to  understand  how 
the  animal  makes  way  with  its  victim. 


34  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Put  the  crayfish  in  a  small  glass  dish  and  offer  it  some  scraps  of  raw 
meat.  Observe  how  these  are  handled.  Notice  how  the  jaws  move. 
There  are  accessory  jaws  in  the  crayfish  as  there  are  in  the  cricket.  Feed 
the  turtle  with  some  scraps  of  raw  meat.  How  does  he  secure  it?  He 
probably  will  help  himself  to  fish,  frogs,  or  other  similar  animals  that  are 
left  in  the  aquarium  with  him  unless  he  is  well  fed.  Confine  a  toad  in  a  jar 
with  some  earth  at  the  bottom.  Then  put  in  some  house  flies,  crickets,  or 
other  insects.  Can  you  observe  how  he  captures  them  ?  Look  up  in  some 
book  the  method  of  attachment  of  the  toad's  tongue  in  its  mouth  and  draw 
a  diagram  to  show  this. 

Snails. — See  specimens  of  the  following  different  sorts  of  water  snails: 
Campeloma  (or  Vivipara),  Limnaea,  Pleurocera,  Goniobasis,  Physa, 
Planorbis,  and  sketch  the  shells  of  those  written  in  italics  so  as  to  bring 
out  the  distinguishing  features. 

Many  of  the  snails  live  on  the  land  seeking,  however,  very  moist  situa- 
tions. The  commonest  large  sorts  in  our  region  belong  to  the  genus 
Polygyra.  Specimens  of  this  or  of  the  edible  snail  to  be  had  at  the  fish 
market  may  be  kept  in  a  moist  glass  jar  and  fed  lettuce  or  cabbage  leaves. 
Note  the  sense  organs,  the  antennae,  and  the  eyes  of  the  snails.  The  eyes 
are  carried  on  stalks  that  can  be  withdrawn.  How  does  the  snail  shell  serve 
the  animal?  Note  how  the  opening  of  the  shell  is  closed  in  the  living 
animal  by  the  horny  operculum  in  such  a  snail  as  Vivipara.  Note  the  lines 
of  growth  on  the  shell.  Where  is  the  new  material  deposited  as  the  shell 
grows  ?  Can  you  see  the  original  shell  ? 

Snail  eggs  will  often  be  found  as  translucent  spheres  imbedded  in  jelly- 
like  material  that  forms  masses  as  large  as  beans  on  the  sides  of  the  aquaria 
or  on  the  water  plants. 

Clams. — Put  a  live  clam  in  the  aquarium  with  sand  on  the  bottom. 
Note  the  white  fleshy  foot  at  the  front  end  by  means  of  which  it  crawls. 
When  the  animal  is  at  rest  the  breathing-  and  feeding-tubes  or  siphons  are 
seen  at  the  hind  end.  Dust  a  little  finely  powdered  chalk  into  the  water 
so  it  will  sink  near  the  siphons.  Can  you  tell  which  one  takes  the  water 
in  and  which  serves  as  an  outlet  ?  See  the  museum  specimens  of  dissected 
clams  to  see  the  gill  chamber  into  which  the  siphons  lead.  Take  the  clam 
from  the  water.  How  tightly  does  he  close  his  shell  ?  Can  you  pull  it  open  ? 
Examine  a  clam  shell  to  see  the  lines  of  growth  on  the  outside.  How  are 
they  arranged  ?  Can  you  see  the  original  tiny  shell  ?  The  two  halves  are 
fastened  together  along  a  hinge  line.  Note  the  furrows  and  ridges  on  the 
inside  of  the  shell  that  interlock  so  the  valves  or  halves  of  the  shell  will 
come  together  accurately.  Note  the  impression  made  on  the  inside  of  the 
shell  by  the  attachment  of  the  strong  muscles  that  hold  the  valves  together. 


ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM  35 

The  smooth  pearl  lining  to  the  shell  is  what  gives  it  value  for  "pearl  but- 
tons." What  service  does  the  pearl  lining  render  to  the  animal?  Do 
you  find  little  rounded  knobs  on  this  pearly  lining  in  some  shells?  Can 
you  explain  them  ?  What  are  baroque  pearls  ?  What  is  the  value  of  the 
pearls  obtained  in  the  United  States  from  fresh-water  clams  ?  of  the  buttons 
made  from  their  shells  ?  Where  is  the  chief  center  of  this  button  industry  ? 

Frogs. — The  commonest  frogs  in  our  region  are  the  bullfrog,  green  frog, 
leopard  frog,  pickerel  frog,  cricket  frog,  and  tree  frog.  Learn  to  recognize 
these  and  also  the  common  garden  toad.  When  is  the  latter  an  animal 
of  the  ponds  and  streams  ?  What  advantage  would  it  be  to  have  toads  in 
the  garden?  How  may  you  provide  inducements  for  them  there?  On 
what  does  the  bullfrog  feed  ?  How  does  the  frog  or  toad  breathe  ?  Watch 
the  frog  swim  in  the  pond  or  aquarium.  What  is  the  advantage  of  the 
webbed  foot?  The  tree  frogs  climb  on  plants  to  secure  insects  as  food. 
Keep  one  in  a  jar  with  a  spray  of  plant  and  watch  to  see  it  climb  the  sides 
of  the  jar  or  on  the  plant.  Draw  a  foot  to  show  the  climbing  device. 
Cut  a  circular  piece  of  leather  two  inches  in  diameter  from  an  old  shoe  top 
and  with  a  needle  run  a  string  through  its  center.  Tie  a  knot  in  the  end  of 
the  string  so  it  cannot  pull  out.  Soak  the  leather  a  while  in  water.  Apply 
it  to  a  piece  of  glass,  knot  side  down.  Press  the  edges  against  the  glass. 
Pull  on  the  string,  trying  to  lift  the  leather  from  the  glass.  What  does  the 
experiment  show  and  what  is  its  significance  at  this  point  ? 

The  common  tree  frog  (Hyla  versicolor)  is  said  to  change  its  color  readily 
when  on  varicolored  backgrounds.  Put  one  in  a  glass-topped  box  lined 
with  green  paper.  Does  it  become  green?  Reline  the  box  with  brown 
and  put  the  frog  in  it;  does  it  change  its  color?  How  long  does  it  take  to 
change  ?  Try  orange,  red,  and  black. 

Frogs'  eggs. — About  the  middle  of  April  obtain  some  frogs'  eggs  from 
the  pond  early  in  the  morning.  Toads'  eggs  may  be  secured  three  or  four 
weeks  later.  Some  of  the  eggs  will  be  found  in  early  stages  with  about 
half  the  surface  white,  half  black,  and  a  single  faint  line  crossing  the  black 
portion.  When  the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  female,  each  is  a  single  large  cell, 
a  spherical  mass  of  living  protoplasm  more  or  less  filled  with  yolk  granules. 
At  the  same  time  the  males  discharge  the  sperm  into  the  water  and  one  of 
them  unites  with  an  egg,  so  fertilizing  it.  (Recall  fertilization  of  the  flower.) 
The  egg  now  proceeds  to  divide  and  subdivide;  watch  this  process  in  the 
schoolroom,  taking  a  few  eggs  for  the  purpose  in  a  shallow  glass  dish  with  a 
little  water  and  placing  them  under  the  simple  magnifying  glass.  Later 
the  spherical  mass  of  small  cells  formed  by  the  continued  subdivisions 
changes  its  shape  to  become  the  tadpole.  Supplement  your  own  observa- 
tions by  those  of  other  members  of  the  class  if  you  cannot  stay  by  the 


36  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

magnifier  to  watch  all  the  changes.     Record  the  observations  somewhat 
as  follows: 
April  1 6 

7 : 10  A.M.     Eggs  are  divided  into  two  parts  and  the  line  begins  to  show  dividing 

each  of  these  parts  again. 
7:45  A.M.     Eggs  are  now  four-celled  (drawing). 
8:10  A.M.     I  can  see  a  new  line  of  division  coming  in  nearly  around  the  middle 

(drawing),  etc. 

Keep  the  record  as  complete  as  you  can,  recording  the  important  events 
in  the  whole  life-history  of  the  frog  or  toad. 

When  you  find  the  eggs  in  the  pond  they  are  imbedded  in  a  mass  of 
jelly.  Of  what  use  is  this  ?  Which  side  of  the  egg  is  uppermost,  the  black 
or  the  white?  Can  you  see  that  this  is  any  advantage?  It  may  help 
you  to  think  this  out  if  you  recall  the  color  of  the  pond  bottom.  Recall 
also  the  color  of  the  clothing  you  prefer  to  wear  in  summer.  By  what 
means  do  we  usually  hatch  eggs  ? 

Tadpoles. — When  the  tadpoles  hatch  out,  where  do  they  go  and  what 
do  they  do  ?  When  they  begin  to  feed,  what  do  they  eat  ?  How  do  they 
eat?  How  do  they  breathe?  Are  they  "fish"  or  frogs  now?  Keep  a 
few  of  them  and  try  to  rear  them.  Secure  also  some  large  tadpoles  from 
the  ponds  and  put  them  in  an  aquarium  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  bank  of 
sand  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  so  the  young  frogs  may  crawl  out  on 
the  land.  Watch  to  see  the  legs  develop  and  the  tail  disappear.  They 
must  now  be  fed  on  insects.  By  what  means  are  they  now  breathing  £ 

Turtles. — Among  the  commonest  turtles  are  the  following  (learn  to 
know  these  at  least) :  the  western  painted  pond,  the  snapper,  the  geographic, 
the  spotted,  the  soft-shell,  the  box.  See  the  museum  specimen  of  the 
turtle's  skeleton.  What  really  is  its  shell  ? 

Fish. — There  are  a  number  of  wonderfully  brilliant  and  interesting 
small  fish  in  our  streams.  These  may  be  kept  in  schoolroom  aquaria  and 
are  very  attractive.  Learn  to  know  the  pumpkin  seed,  blue  gill,  red- 
bellied  dace,  common  shiner,  brook  silversides,  chub,  mud  minnow,  and 
rainbow  darter. 

Aquarium. — A  school  aquarium  is  easily  made  as  follows:  Obtain  nine 
lineal  feet  of  half-inch  angle  tin  from  a  tinsmith.  Cut  this  and  solder  to- 
gether so  as  to  make  a  frame  6|  by  8J  by  10  inches  with  the  open  side  of  the 
angles  of  the  tin  turned  in.  Obtain  one  piece  of  8  by  10  window  glass, 
2  pieces  6  by  10  and  two  pieces  6  by  8.  These  may  be  cut  of  old  window 
glass  with  a  wheel  glass-cutter.  Make  a  cupful  of  cement  with  8  oz.  of 
whiting,  i  of  litharge,  and  i  of  red  lead.  Mix  these  dry,  then  add  some 
raw  linseed  oil,  stirring  it  in  with  a  putty-knife.  When  very  stiff  take  it 


ANIMALS  OF  POND  AND  STREAM  37 

in  hand  and  squeeze  it  to  get  in  more  of  the  dry  cement.  Keep  the  hands 
powdered  with  the  latter.  Work  it  to  the  consistency  of  putty. 

With  the  putty-knife  lay  a  rim  of  this  cement  around  the  edge  of  the 
8  by  10  glass.  Press  this,  cement  rim  down,  into  the  frame  for  the  bottom 
of  the  aquarium.  Trim  off  the  excess  of  cement.  Similarly  set  the  6  by  10 
pieces  for  the  sides  and  then  the  6  by  8  pieces  for  the  ends.  Roll  out  ropes 
of  the  cement  and  press  these  into  all  the  angles  where  glasses  meet.  Let 
stand  for  twenty-four  hours;  it  may  then  be  used,  even  though  the  cement 
is  not  hard. 

The  balanced  aquarium. — The  aquarium  is  to  be  stocked  with  plenty 
of  water  plants  and  a  few  animals.  A  couple  of  minnows,  two  or  three 
dragon-fly  nymphs,  and  a  couple  of  snails  are  enough  animal  life  for  one 
aquarium.  Keep  the  top  covered  with  a  piece  of  glass  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. The  water  does  not  need  to  be  changed  except  as  it  becomes  very 
dirty.  When  plenty  of  plants  are  present  they  will  give  off  an  abundance 
of  what  the  animals  need.  What  is  this  ?  The  animals  will  supply  what 
the  plants  need.  What  ?  Under  such  conditions  the  aquarium  is  balanced. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  best  of  the  plants  to  use  in  the  aquarium. 
Make  a  sketch  of  enough  of  each  so  you  can  recognize  it  and  remember  it. 
Cabomba,  water  milfoil  (Myriophyllum),  hornwort  (Ceratophyllum), 
bladderwort  (Utricularia) ,  water  buttercup  (Ranunculus  aquatilis),  ditch 
moss  (Elodea),  eelgrass  (Vallisneria),  pondweed  (Potamogetori).  These 
water  weeds,  all  flowering  plants,  are  themselves  very  interesting.  Note 
that  the  leaves  are  long,  slender,  and  thin  or  else  very  much  cut  up  so  their 
parts  are  threadlike.  Can  you  tell  why?  The  water  buttercup  often 
grows  partly  in  the  water  and  partly  out,  when  the  leaves  are  of  two  sorts. 
What  are  they  and  what  is  the  significance  of  their  varied  form  ? 


TREES 

Provide  yourself  with  a  medium  pencil  and  a  pan  of  water  colors. 
Select  some  typical  tree  for  study  and  be  seated  one  hundred  feet  or  more 
distant  from  it,  so  you  will  not  be  confused  by  too-great  detail.  On  the 
page  opposite  attempt  a  pencil  sketch  of  the  tree,  making  the  sketch,  say, 
six  inches  high.  This  may  be  done  without  previous  training  in  drawing, 
for  the  purpose  of  the  sketch  is  to  make  you  observe  the  tree  carefully, 
noting  its  proportion,  general  shape,  method  of  branching,  massing  of 
foliage,  light,  and  shade.  The  resulting  sketch  may  be  very  crude,  but  if 
it  is  a  faithful  attempt  to  record  what  is  actually  seen  it  will  accomplish 
the  purpose.  Try  a  second  sketch  if  the  first  does  not  satisfy  you.  Attempt 
a  water-color  sketch  of  the  tree.  Use  a  fairly  large  brush,  mix  up  plenty  of 
color,  and  apply  it  quickly  in  an  attempt  to  show  the  same  things  portrayed 
in  the  pencil  sketch  and  also  the  color  effects. 

Twigs. — Obtain  a  twig  of  horse  chestnut  or  of  lilac.  Draw  a  sketch  of 
the  twig  to  show  the  position  of  the  buds,  the  leaf  scars,  and  the  lenticels 
of  the  bark.  Draw  carefully  the  leaf  scar  of  the  horse  chestnut,  the  ailan- 
thus,  and  the  catalpa.  You  will  see  in  each  leaf  scar  a  number  of  conspicu- 
ous dots.  What  are  these  ?  Is  the  arrangement  of  them  typical  for  each 
sort  of  tree. 

Leaves. — -Secure  leaves  of  the  elm  or  basswood,  of  the  horse  chestnut, 
and  of  the  ailanthus  or  ash.  Make  a  sketch  of  these  leaves  and  label  the 
first  a  simple  leaf.  The  horse  chestnut  and  the  ailanthus  or  ash  are  samples 
of  compound  leaves,  the  former  palmately  compound,  the  latter  pinnately 
compound.  What  other  trees  in  your  neighborhood  have  simple  leaves 
and  what  ones  have  compound  ?  Do  you  find  any  other  palmately  com- 
pound leaves? 

Bud  arrangement. — Secure  twigs  of  maple,  elm,  poplar,  sumac,  ash, 
basswood,  and  willow,  selecting  in  each  case  a  good,  straight  twig.  Which 
of  these  have  opposite  buds  and  which  have  alternate?  Do  the  twigs 
have  the  same  arrangement  as  the  buds  ?  Why  ?  Where  are  the  buds  with 
reference  to  the  leaf  scars  ?  Do  the  buds  come  out  at  any  spot  on  the  twig 
or  are  they  confined  to  certain  points  ?  Select  a  straight  twig  of  basswood. 
Notice  that  you  can  readily  find  a  bud  that  is  immediately  over  another 
one  farther  down  the  stem  and  that  between  these  two  there  is  another 
bud  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem.  If  you  were  to  hold  a  string  on  the 

38 


TREES  39 

first  bud,  pass  it  on  to  the  second  bud,  twisting  it  around  the  stem  as  needed, 
and  then  on  up  to  the  third  bud,  the  string  would  make  one  spiral  turn 
around  the  stem  and  touch  two  buds  to  get  from  the  one  with  which  you 
started  to  the  one  just  above  it.  The  bud  arrangement  on  such  a  twig 
might  be  represented  by  the  mathematical  arrangement  i  over  2,  in  which 
the  2  indicates  the  number  of  buds  in  the  cycle  and  the  i  the  number  of 
turns  taken  around  the  stem.  In  the  same  way  find  the  "fraction"  that 
indicates  the  bud  arrangement  on  other  twigs  with  alternate  buds.  You 
will  find  that  the  fraction  series  runs:  \,  ^,  f,  etc.  What  do  you  find  is  the 
next  fraction  in  the  series?  Study  the  series  to  discover  the  relation 
between  the  fractions  so  that  you  can  tell  without  actually  finding  the  twig 
what  the  fifth  fraction  in  the  series  is. 

Parts  of  bud. — Secure  twigs  of  horse  chestnut,  lilac,  white  poplar,  or 
any  others  that  have  good-sized  buds.  Pick  a  bud  to  pieces  and  arrange 
the  parts  as  they  occur  in  the  series.  What  do  you  find  on  the  outside  of 
the  bud  ?  what  on  the  inside  ?  What,  then,  is  a  bud  ?  What  really  are 
these  protective  covers  ?  Cut  a  bud  open  lengthwise  and  draw  a  diagram 
representing  the  section.  Do  the  same  with  an  onion.  Comparing  the 
two,  what  would  you  say  is  the  real  nature  of  an  onion?  How  does  it 
differ  from  a  bud  ? 

Common  trees. — Learn  to  know  the  following  trees  both  in  their  sum- 
mer and  in  their  winter  condition.  Refer  to  such  books  as  Blakesley  and 
Jarvis'  Trees  in  Their  Winter  Condition,  Apgar's  Trees  of  North  America, 
Hough's  Trees  of  the  United  States,  Lounsberry's  How  to  Know  the  Trees. 
There  follows  (p.  42)  a  key  that  will  serve  to  identify  the  common  trees 
of  this  region. 

Acer  negundo:  box  elder 

Acer  rubrum:  red  maple 

Acer  platanoides:  Norway  maple  (introduced) 

Acer  saccharinum:  soft  maple 

Acer  saccharum:  sugar  maple 

Aesculus  hippocostanum:  horse  chestnut 

Ailanthus  glandulosa:  ailanthus 

Alnus  vulgaris:  European  alder 

Betula  alba  papyrifera:  white  birch 

Catalpa  speciosa:  catalpa 

Celtis  occidentalis:  hackberry 

Cercis  canadensis:  redbud 

Crataegus  Crus-galli:  hawthorn 

Fraxinus  americana:  white  ash 

Fraxinus  nigra:  black  ash 

Fraxinus  pennsyhanica:  red  ash 


40  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata:  blue  ash 

Ginkgo  triloba:  maidenhair 

Gleditsia  triacanthos:  honey  locust 

Gymnocladus  dioecia:  Kentucky  coffee 

Juglans  cinerea:  butternut 

Juglans  nigra:  black  walnut 

Juniperus  communis:  juniper 

Juniperus  mrginiana:  red  cedar 

Larix  laricinia:  larch  or  tamarack 

Moms  alba:  white  mulberry 

Moms  rubra:   red  mulberry 

Nyssa  aquatica:  tupelo 

Nyssa  syhatica:  sour  gum,  pepperidge 

Platanus  occidentalis:  sycamore 

Picea  excelsa:  Norway  spruce 

Pinus  banksiana:  scrub  pine 

Pinus  strobus:  white  pine 

Pinus  syhestris:  Scotch  pine 

Populus  alba:  white  poplar 

Populus  balsamifera:  balsam  poplar 

Populus  deltoides:  cottonwood 

Populus  grandidentata:  large-toothed  aspen 

Populus  heterophylla:  downy  poplar 

Populus  nigra  italica:  Lombardy  poplar 

Populus  tremuloides:  aspen 

Prunus  serotina:  black  cherry 

Ptelea  trifoliata:  hop 

Pyrus  americana:  mountain  ash 

Pyrus  ioensis:  prairie  crab 

Quercus  alba:  white  oak 

Quercus  macrocarpa:  bur  oak 

Quercus  rubra:  red  oak 

Quercus  velutina:  black  oak 

Rhus  glabra:  common  sumac 

Rhus  typhina:  staghorn  sumac 

Robinia  pseudacacia:  black  locust 

Salix  nigra:  black  willow 

Thuya  occidentalis:  arbor  vitae 

Tilia  americana:  basswood 

Toxylon  pomiferum:  osage  orange 

Ulmus  americana:  white  elm 

Ulmus  fuha:  red  elm,  slippery  elm 


TREES  41 

Tree  map. — On  the  blank  page  opposite  make  a  tree  map  of  the  block 
bounded  by  the  following  streets: 


Put  a  dot  on  it  for  location  of  each  tree,  numbering  the  same  sort  of  tree 
with  the  same  number.  Make  a  list  of  the  numbers  below  the  map  indi- 
cating the  tree  to  which  each  refers. 

Growth. — Examine  the  twigs  from  the  horse  chestnut  or  the  maple  or 
ash  and  see  if  you  can  determine  the  length  of  twig  that  was  added  last 
year;  the  year  before  last.  Draw  a  twig  to  show  the  marks  that  indicate 
the  limits  of  each  season's  growth.  Make  a  cross-section  of  the  terminal 
twig  and  examine  the  end.  Notice  at  the  center  the  pith,  around  this  the 
wood  cylinder,  then  a  layer  of  soft  tissue,  just  outside  of  which  is  the  bark. 
Cut  a  two-year-old  twig.  How  many  wood  rings  are  there  in  it  ?  Examine 
a  cross-section  of  a  tree  trunk.  Count  the  rings  of  growth.  Find  out  from 
your  reading  how  nearly  the  number  of  annual  rings  coincides  in  temperate 
regions  with  the  age  of  the  tree.  Examine  the  stump  of  some  large  tree 
to  determine  its  approximate  age.  What  was  happening  in  this  neighbor- 
hood when  it  was  a  seedling  ? 

The  ring  of  soft  tissue  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  is  the  area  where 
the  new  wood  and  bark  form.  We  have  seen  in  such  annuals  as  the  weeds 
that  fibrovascular  bundles  are  arranged  in  a  ring.  These  crowd  together 
and  form  a  new  wood  layer  next  to  the  old  wood  and  a  new  bark  layer  next 
to  the  bark.  Between  these  the  soft  tissue  known  as  the  cambium  layer 
grows  rapidly  in  thickness  in  the  spring  and  in  it  the  new  fibrovascular 
bundles  are  formed.  This  cambium  layer  is  easily  broken  down,  and  it  is 
this  fact  that  renders  it  possible  to  make  the  willow  whistle.  Find  out 
how  to  make  the  whistle  and  try  it.  In  the  cross-section  of  the  tree  trunk 
notice  the  thin  lines  that  run  from  the  center  toward  the  margin;  the  medul- 
lary rays.  What  makes  these  ? 

Shade  trees. — What  trees  of  our  region  are  most  commonly  used  for 
shade  trees?  Which  of  the  shade  trees  is  the  most  ornamental?  What 
trees  will  grow  best  in  sandy  soil  ?  What  sort  of  soil  does  the  elm  require  ? 
Is  there  any  objection  to  the  sycamore  as  a  shade  tree  ?  How  extensive 
is  the  root  system  of  a  tree  ?  What  is  the  best  time  for  transplanting  trees  ? 
Why  ?  How  much  soil  needs  to  be  taken  up  with  the  tree  ?  Why  are  the 
branches  trimmed  off  pretty  severely  when  a  tree  is  transplanted  ? 


42  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

KEY  TO  TREES  OF  THE  CHICAGO  REGION  BASED  ON  EASILY 

RECOGNIZED  DISTINGUISHING  FEATURES 
A.  Trees  bearing  cones  and  needle-like  or  scalelike  leaves 
that  (except  the  larch)  remain  on  the  year  round,  i.e., 
are  evergreens 

a— Leaves  scalelike,  overlapping  Arbor  Vitae  or  White  Cedar 

aa — Leaves  needle-like 

b — Needles  2-5  in  clusters 

c— Needles  5  in  cluster  White  Pine 

cc — Needles  2  in  cluster,  i-i|  in.  long  Jack  Pine 

(other  pines  occur  in  the  parks) 
bb — Needles  single 

c — Needles  spreading  on  opposite  sides  of  twig 
like  barbs  of  a  feather 

d — Needles  ^  in.  or  more  long;  bark  blistery          Balsam  (Parks) 
dd — Needles  less  than  |  in.;  bark  not  blistery  Hemlock 

cc — Needles  sticking  out  all  round  twig 
d — Needles  \  in.  or  so  long 

e — Needles    in    whorls    of    three,    sharp- 
pointed  Common  Juniper 
ee — Needles    not     whorled;      not     sharp- 
pointed  Spruce  (Parks) 
dd — Needles  less  than  \  in.  long,  sharp-pointed 

e — A  spreading  shrub  Creeping  Juniper 

ee — A  pyramidal  shrub  or  tree  Red  Cedar  or  Juniper 

AA.  Trees   not   cone-bearing;    leaves   not   needle-like   but 
broader,  falling  in  autumn 
a — Leaves  and  twigs  two  or  more  at  node 

b — Most  leaves  (and  leaf  scars)  three  at  node  Catalpa 

bb — Leaves  (and  twigs)  two  at  node,  opposite 
c — Leaves  compound 

d — Palmately  compound;  buds  large,  gummy         Horse  Chestnut 
dd — Pinnately  compound 

e — Twigs   slender;     leaf   scars   encircling 
twig  and  meeting  in  a  point 

Box  Elder  or  Ash-leaved  Maple 
ee — Twigs  coarse;  leaf  scars  not  meeting 
/ — Twigs  square 

g — In  swamps;   fruit  wing  tapering 

at  both  ends  Water  Ash 

gg — In  rich  woods;   fruit  wing  blunt 

both  ends  Blue  Ash 

ff — Twigs  round 

g — Branchlets  downy  Red  Ash 


TREES  43 

gg-^Branchlets  smooth 

h — Leaflets  without  stalk,,  buds 

black  Black  Ash 

hh — Leaflets  with  stalk 

* — Leaf  scar  concave  on  upper 

margin;  leaflets  pale  below  White  Ash 

ii — Leaf  scar  not  concave; 
leaflets  bright  green  bofh 
sides  Green  Ash 

cc — Leaves  simple 
d— Lobed 

e — Leaf  scars  encircling  twig,  meeting  in 

point  Norway  Maple  (Parks) 

ee — Leaf  scars  not  encircling  twigs 

/ — Cleft  between  main    lobes  of   leaf 

U-shaped;  marginal  teeth  few  Sugar  Maple 

ff — Cleft  between  main  lobes  V-shaped; 
marginal  teeth  many 
g — Leaf    very    deeply    cut;     twigs 

green  Soft  Maple 

gg — Leaf  not  deeply  cut;  twigs  red  Red  Maple 

dd — Leaves    not    lobed;     pith    streaked    with 

red  Flowering  Dogwood 

aa — Leaves  only  one  at  node,  alternate 
b — Leaves  compound 

c — Leaf  with  three  leaflets  Hop  Tree 

cc — Leaf  with  more  than  three  leaflets 
d — Twigs  very  stout,  pithy 

e— -Bark  with  diamond-shaped  areas  ap- 
pearing as  if  made  by  pasting  on  strips 
of  paper;  pith  salmon  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree 

ee — Bark  not  showing  conspicuous  diamond- 
shaped  areas 
/ — Leaf   scars   large,    triangular;    pith 

chocolate-brown  Ailanthus 

ff — Leaf  scars  V-shaped;    pith  yellow- 
brown 

g — Twigs  velvety  Staghorn  Sumac 

gg — Twigs  smooth  Smooth  Sumac 

dd — Twigs  not  very  stout 

e — Leaflets  mostly  broad  at  outer  end, 
oblanceolate 

/ — Bark  shaggy,  with  detaching  flakes     Shagbark  Hickory 
// — Bark  not  shaggy 

g — Leaflets    5-7 ;    nut   thick-shelled         Pignut  Hickory 


44 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


gg — Leaflets   7-11;    nut  thin-shelled 

Bitternut  or  Swamp  Hickory 
ee — Leaflets  lance-shaped 

/ — Yellow  bark  with  conspicuous  hori- 
zontal streaks,  the  lenticels  Mountain  Ash 
ff— Bark  not  yellow  nor  streaked  hori- 
zontally 

g — Leaflets  2  in.  or  more  long;  pith 
chambered  between  nodes 
h — Leaf   stems    and    branchlets 

downy,  bark  gray  White  Walnut 

hh — Leaf  stems  downy,  bark  dark  Black  Walnut 

gg — Leaflets  i  in.  or  less  long 

h — A  pair  of  spines  at  each  node 

i — Leaflets  not  over  9  Prickly  Ash  (shrub) 

ii — Leaflets  more  than  9;  tree 

bears  pods  5  in.  long     Common  or  Black  Locust 
hh — No  spines  at  nodes  but  thorns 
on  trunk;    tree   bears   pods 
10  in.  or  more  long  Honey  Locust 

bb — Leaves  simple 

c — Trees  with  thorns  on  branches 

d — A  short  thorn  at  each  node  Osage  Orange 

dd — Long  thorns  scattered  on  branches 

e — Thorns  real  thorns  Hawthorn 

ee — "Thorns"   simply  stubby  sharp  fruit 

spurs  Wild  Crab 

cc — Tree  thornless 

d — Bark  smooth  with  conspicuous  horizontal 
lenticels 

e — Bark  white,  peeling  in  papery  layers  White  Birch 

ee — Bark  reddish  to  brown  (on  trunk  it  may 
be  roughened) 

/—Fruit  conelike  Tag  Alder 

//"—Fruit  not  conelike 

g — Terminal  bud  absent  Wild  Plum 

gg — Terminal  bud  present 

h — Blossoms  and  fruits  in  raceme- 
like  clusters  Choke  Cherry 
hh — Blossoms  and  fruits  single  Pin  Cherry 
Bark  without  conspicuous  horizontal  lenti- 
cels 
e — Bark  flaking,  leaving  stem  patched  in 

green  and  white  Sycamore 


TREES  45 

ee — Bark   of   trunk   or   of  twigs  with  high  corky 
ridges 

/—Corky  ridges  on  main  trunk;  leaf  base  oblique  Hackberry 

//—Corky  ridges  on  twigs 

g — Leaves  lobed  Sweet  Gum 

gg — Leaves  not  lobed  ,  Cork  Elm 

eee — Bark  like  alligator  skin,  twigs  aromatic  Black  Cherry 

eeee — Bark  green  on  limbs,  and  in  young  trees  also 
on  main  trunk 

/ — Leaves  broad,  as  wide  or  nearly  as  wide  as 
long 

g — Undersurface  of  leaves  silvery  white  with 
hairs 

h — Leaf  stem  flattened  from  side  to  side  White  Poplar 

hh — Leaf  stem  square  or  channeled,  not  flat  Downy  Poplar 

gg — Undersurface  of  leaves  not  silvery 

h — Leaf  stem  flattened  from  side  to  side 

i — Branches  ascending  close  to  trunk      Lombardy  Poplar 
ii — Branches  spreading 

j — Leaves  cut  off  square  at  base, 
taper-pointed 

Carolina  Poplar  or  Cotton  wood 

jj — Leaves  broadly  ovate 
k — Marginal  teeth  coarse 

Large-toothed  Aspen  Poplar 
kk — Marginal  teeth  fine 

Small-toothed  Aspen  Poplar 
hh — Leaf  stem  not  flattened,  channeled 

i — Leaf  hairy  below  Balm  of  Gilead 

ii — Leaf    smooth    but    silvery    below 

Balsam  Poplar 

ff— Leaves  narrow,  not  nearly  as  wide  as  long 
(willows,  Syrticola) 

g — Leaves  smooth  or  nearly  so  on  both  sides 
when  mature 
h — Leaves    ten   times   as   long   as   wide 

(shrub)  Long-leaved  Willow  (S.  longifolia) 

hh — Leaves  broader,  lanceolate  to  ovate 
i — Branches  drooping 

Weeping  Willow  (S.  babylonica) 


46  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

ii — Branches  ascending 

j — Shrubs  or  low  trees  less  than  20  ft.  high 

k — Twigs  purplish  Purple  Willow  (S.  pur  pur  ea) 

kk — Twigs  brownish   or  yellowish 
/ — Petioles  and  stipules  glandular 
m — Leaves  shiny,  green  both  sur- 
faces Shining  Willow  (S.  lucida) 
mm — Leaves  shiny,  pale  below 

Autumn  Willow  (S.  serrissima) 
II — Petioles  and  stipules  not  glandular 

m — Leaves  entire,  elliptic;   1-3  ft.  S.  pedicillaris 

mm — Leaves  more  or  less  toothed 
n-T— Leaves  not  white  below 

o — Leaves  dull  green  above  S.  cordata 

oo — Leaves  glossy  above 

Shiny-leaved  Willow  (S.  glaucophylla) 
nn — Leaves  white  below 

o — Leaves  elliptic  to  ovate, 
the  fine  teeth  glandular 

Balsam  Willow  (S.  balsamifera) 
oo — Leaves  lanceolate  to  ob- 
long 
p — Young  leaves  densely 

silky  Silky  Willow  (S.  sericea] 

pp — Young    leaves    only 
slightly  hairy 
q — Leaves  lanceolate, 

taper-pointed  S.  petiolaris 

•  qq — Leaves      oblong- 
lanceolate,    acute 

Glaucous  Willow  (S.  discolor] 
jj — Trees  20-70  ft.  high 

k- — Leaves    narrowly    lance-shaped,    six 

times  as  long  as  wide  Black  Willow  (S.  nigra) 

kk — Leaves  broadly  lance-shaped,  less  than 
six  times  as  long  as  wide 
/ — Pale  beneath 

Peach-leaved  Willow  (S.  amygdaloides) 
II — Same  green  both  sides 

Fragile  Willow  (S.  fragilis) 
gg — Leaves  persistently  hairy,  at  least  below 


TREES  47 

h — Cultivated  trees 

i — Leaves  finely  serrate  White  Willow  (S.  alba) 

ii — Leaves  entire  Osier  Willow  (S.  mminalis) 

hh — Native  shrubs 

j — Low,  1-6  ft.  high 

k — Leaves  2  inches  or 
less;  1-2   ft. 

Dwarf  Gray  Willow  (S.  tristis) 

kk — Leaves  2  inches  or 

more  long;    2-6  ft. 

/ — Leaves  and  young 

twigs  white,  hairy 

beneath  Hoary  Willow  (S.  Candida) 

II — Leaves  gray, 
hairy  beneath 

Prairie  Willow  (S.  humilis) 
jj— Tall    shrubs,    5-12    ft. 
high 
k — Leaves   hairy   both 

sides  S.  syrticola 

kk — Leaves    hairy    only 
below 

/ — Leaves  narrowly 
lanceolate,  silky, 

shiny,  below  Silky  Willow  (S.  scricea) 

II — Leaves  broadly 
lanceolate,  white, 
hairy  below 

Dwarf  Gray  Willow  (S.  rostrata] 
eeeee — Bark  with  none  of  foregoing  characters 
/—Leaves  lobed   (except  shingle  oak) 

g — Bearing  apples  Hawthorn  (Crataegus) 

gg — Bearing  acorns  Oaks  (Quercus) 

h — Leaves   with   rounded  lobes, 
not  bristle-tipped 
i — Leaf  broadest  across  mid- 
dle; acorn  long,  |  in  cup 

White  Oak  (Quercus  alba) 
ii — Leaf  broadest  at  outer  end 
j — Acorn  short-stalked,  |-  in 

fringed  cup  Bur  Oak  (Q.  macrocarpa) 

jj — Acorn,  long-stalked,  \  in 

cup  Swamp  White  Oak  (Q.  Ucolor) 

hh — Leaves     with     acute    lobes, 
bristle-pointed    when    young 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


Red  Oak  (Q.  rubra) 


i — Leaves    deeply    pinnately 
lobed 

j — Longest  lobes  about 
equaling  widest  middle 
portion 

jj — Longest  lobes  two  to 
six  times  widest  middle 
portion 

k — Scales   of   cup    not 
sticking  out 
/ — Acorn      globose, 

cup  shallow 
// — Acorn  ovoid,  cup 
covers  about  half 
m — Interior  bark 

red 

mm — Interior  bark 
yellow 

Northern  Pin  Oak  (Q.  ellipsoidalis) 
kk — Scales  of  cup  stick- 
ing out 

ii — Leaves,  entire  lanceolate 
^/—Leaves  not  lobed 

g — Leaves  spreading  out  on  opposite 
sides    of    twig    appearing    two- 
ranked 
h — Sap  milky 
hh — Sap  not  milky 

i — B ark  smooth;  trunk  fluted 
ii — Bark  rough 

j — Leaves  oblique  at  base; 
bark  coarsely  furrowed 
k — Leaves  large,  nearly 

as  broad  as  long 
kk — Leaves  not  nearly  as 
broad  as  long 
/ — L eaves    very 
rough;  branchlets 
and  buds  downy 
// — Leaves    smooth; 
branchlets      and 
buds  smooth 

jj — Leaf  base  not  oblique 

k — Bark  smooth,  gray 

kk — Bark  finely  furrowed 


Pin  Oak  (Q.  palustris) 


Scarlet  Oak  (Q.  coccinea) 


Black  Oak  (Q.  velutina) 
Laurel  Oak  (Q.  imbricaria) 


Mulberry 
Hop  Hornbeam 


Basswood 


Red  Elm 


White  Elm 

Beech 
Ironwood 


TREES  49 

gg — Leaves  not  apparently  two-ranked 

h — Leaves  obovate  (Fig.  30)  Pawpaw 

hh — Leaves  not  obovate 
i — Margins  entire 

j — Leaves  heart-shaped  Red  Bud 

jj — Leaves  lanceolate  Laurel  Oak 

ii — Margins  toothed 

j — Double- toothed  Hazelnut 

jj — Single- toothed  June  Berry 

Tree  nursery. — Grow  seedlings  of  the  oak,  maple,  linden,  apple,  cherry, 
quince,  and  plum  or  of  any  other  desirable  shade  or  fruit  trees.  This  work 
may  be  started  indoors  in  the  winter,  the  seedlings  kept  in  the  pots  until 
late  in  the  spring  and  transplanted  to  the  school  garden,  later  to  be  used 
on  the  school  grounds  or  on  the  home  grounds  of  pupils.  Fruit  trees  raised 
from  seed  usually  produce  inferior  fruit.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  for 
such  trees  to  revert  to  the  wild  types.  Hence  it  is  customary  to  cut  back 
such  trees  and  graft  on  desirable  stock.  Look  up  the  method  of  grafting. 
Write  out  the  directions  on  the  blank  sheet  opposite  and  try  out  the  process 
on  some  of  the  year-old  trees  planted  the  preceding  year.  Observe  the 
method  used  in  pruning  shade  trees  in  parks  or  along  the  streets.  Observe 
the  method  of  pruning  in  the  orchards  near  by.  State  briefly  what  you 
find  out  as  to  the  proper  method  of  pruning.  How  should  a  grapevine  be 
pruned  so  it  will  bear  well?  Find  out  how  to  prune  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, currants. 

Common  shrubs. — Learn  to  know  the  following  shrubs.  Consult 
Apgar's  Shrubs  of  the  United  States. 

Aralia  spinosa:  Hercules  club 

Berberii  thunbergii:  barberry 

Cephalanthus  occidentalis:  button  bush 

Cornus  stolonifera:  red  osier  dogwood 

Corylus  americanus:  hazelnut 

Diervilla  lonicera:  bush  honeysuckle 

Euvonymus  atropurpureus:  wahoo  or  burning  bush 

Juniperus  communis:  common  juniper 

Juniperus  horizontalis:  prostrate  juniper 

Lonicera  sullivanii:  bush  honeysuckle 

Physocarpus  opulifolius:  ninebark 

Rosa  blanda:  smooth  or  meadow  rose 

Sambacus  canadensis:  common  alder 

Sambacus  racemosa:  red-berried  aider 

Symphocarpus  racemosus:  snowberry 

Syringa  mdgaris:  lilac 


50  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Tamarix  indica:  Tamarix 
Taxus  canadensis:  American  yew 
Viburnum  lentago:  black  haw 
Viburnum  opulus:  cranberry  tree 
Zanthoxylum  americanum:  prickly  ash 

Propagation. — Shrubs  are  usually  propagated  by  cuttings.  In  early 
spring  cut  off  a  six-inch  length  from  the  end  of  a  lilac,  syringa,  or  raspberry 
twig.  Remove  all  buds  except  the  terminal  ones.  Stick  this  in  moist  sand 
and  keep  it  where  the  temperature  is  not  very  high.  Keep  the  sand  moist, 
not  wet.  In  time  the  stem  throws  out  rootlets  and  the  leaf  buds  develop. 
The  new  plant  may  now  be  set  out  in  the  garden.  When  the  shrubbery  is 
pruned,  in  late  winter,  the  twigs  that  are  cut  off  may  be  kept  to  use  for 
cuttings.  Cut  them  up  into  from  four-  to  six-inch  lengths  with  a  bud  on 
each.  Tie  them  up  in  bundles  and  keep  in  a  cool  cellar  or  bury  until  spring, 
when  they  are  set  in  the  sandy  soil  in  the  garden  until  roots  and  new  shoots 
form.  The  soil  should  contain  little  organic  matter.  The  school  garden 
may  well  contain  a  bed  devoted  to  rearing  trees  and  shrubs.  The  seeds 
and  cuttings  can  be  obtained  free  of  charge  and  the  school  grounds  or  even 
the  entire  neighborhood  be  benefited. 

Tree  distribution. — Make  a  trip  to  some  river  valley  bordered  by  hills 
or  to  the  shore  of  a  large  lake  or  ocean  to  note  what  sorts  of  trees  and  shrubs 
are  growing  in  the  region.  List  the  trees  that  you  find  growing  chiefly  in 
the  sandy  soil,  on  the  rocky  hillsides,  in  the  swamps,  and  on  the  river 
bottom.  As  a  result  of  your  study  make  a  diagram  of  the  region  studied 
and  indicate  the  names  of  the  characteristic  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  several 
localities. 

Lumbering. — Read  up  on  the  lumbering  operations  and  write  out  on  the 
following  blank  page  the  history  of  a  tree  from  the  time  it  is  cut  until  it 
is  in  furniture.  Answer  these  questions  on  the  blank  pages  following: 
(i)  How  much  of  the  tree  is  left  in  the  forest  as  waste  ?  (2)  What  is  usually 
done  with  the  trimmings?  (3)  How  should  they  be  handled?  (4)  How 
much  of  the  tree  trunk  is  turned  into  lumber  ?  (5)  What  becomes  of  the 
rough  exterior  ?  (6)  How  is  the  lumber  dried  ?  (7)  How  is  the  quarter- 
sawed  lumber  produced  ?  (8)  What  is  veneer  and  how  is  it  cut  ?  (9)  In 
taking  trees  out  for  lumber  which  should  be  cut  and  which  left?  (10)  If 
the  trees  in  an  area  to  be  lumbered  are  all  mature  should  all  be  cut? 
(n)  What  was  the  estimated  forest  area  for  the  United  States  when  the 
first  settlers  came  to  this  country  ?  (12)  What  is  it  now  ?  (13)  How  much 
of  the  general  timberland  is  held  by  the  government  ?  (14)  How  much  is 
held  by  states  ?  (15)  How  much  does  your  state  own  ?  (16)  How  much  is 
held  by  large  landholders  ?  (17)  How  much  is  held  by  farmers  ?  (18)  How 


TREES  51 

much  wood  do  we  use  up  annually  in  the  United  States  per  capita? 
(19)  What  is  the  per  capita  consumption  of  France?  (20)  Of  Germany? 
(21)  Of  Italy?  (22)  What  is  the  proportion  between  what  we  grow  and 
what  we  use  ?  (23)  What  is  the  average  annual  loss  in  the  United  States 
due  to  forest  fires  ?  (24)  What  are  the  chief  causes  of  forest  fires  in  order 
of  their  importance?  (25)  In  the  hill  countries  what  happens  to  the  soil 
of  a  burned-over  area  ?  (26)  Do  the  same  trees  usually  grow  in  a  burned- 
over  area  as  stood  on  the  ground  before  the  fire?  (27)  What  area  do  we 
have  in  the  United  States  good  for  nothing  but  growing  forests  ?  (28)  How 
much  of  this  is  now  forest-covered  ?  (29)  What  is  the  average  area  that 
we  plant  annually  ?  (30)  How  much  of  this  is  planted  with  young  trees  ? 
(31)  How  much  with  seed  ? 

Lumber. — Learn  to  know  the  following  dressed  lumber:  white  pine, 
Georgia  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  red  wood,  red  cedar,  cypress,  white  wood, 
hard  maple,  bird's-eye  maple,  birch,  ash,  hickory,  oak,  walnut,  and  mahog- 
any. Examine  the  furniture  and  woodwork  about  the  school  and  the  home. 
Can  you  tell  of  what  woods  it  is  made  ? 


THE  SPORE-BEARERS 

Molds. — Let  a  piece  of  moist  bread  stand  in  an  uncovered  pint  jar  for 
two  or  three  days,  adding  water  occasionally  to  keep  it  moist.  Then  cover 
the  jar 'and  watch  for  mold  to  appear.  Probably  either  the  common  black 
mold  or  the  green  mold  will  develop.  The  bread  rapidly  becomes  covered 
with  a  tangle  of  delicate  interlacing  colorless  threads  known  as  the  hyphae, 
the  entire  mass  being  designated  as  the  mycelium.  Soon  some  of  the  upright 
hyphae  of  the  black  mold  grow  the  spore  cases  at  their  tips;  the  green  mold 
shows  the  clustered  chains  of  spores.  The  spore  cases  rupture  and  dis- 
charge the  spores,  tiny  particles  that  dust  off,  germinate  on  the  moist  sur- 
face of  the  bread  and  start  new  mold  plants.  Examine  some  of  these  spores, 
if  possible  under  a  hand  lens,  or,  better,  under  a  microscope.  Not  much  is 
to  be  seen  on  casual  examination,  but  you  will  be  impressed  with  their 
minute  size  and  great  abundance.  These  spores  are  not  structurally  like 
seeds.  The  seed  contains  the*  young  plant,  which  simply  becomes  larger 
when  the  seed  is  planted.  These  spores  are  single  cells,  which  grow  into  new 
plants  under  favorable  conditions. 

Toadstools. — There  are  a  great  many  more  plants  that  reproduce  by 
spores  than  there  are  plants  that  bear  seeds.  Familiar  examples  are  the 
puff  balls  and  toadstools,  the  lichens,  mosses,  ferns,  and  horsetails.  The 
toadstool  is  really  only  the  spore-bearing  part  of  the  plant;  the  bulk  of 
the  plant,  the  mycelium,  is  buried  in  the  decomposing  organic  matter  in 
the  ground  or  the  rotting  log  on  which  the  toadstool  appears.  Examine 
some  toadstool  and  note  its  parts,  the  stem  and  cap,  the  latter  having  on  its 
under  side  many  spore-bearing  gills  or  numerous  tubes  from  which  spores 
discharge.  Try  to  find  some  of  the  buried  mycelium.  Cut  off  the  cap  and 
lay  it  down,  top  up,  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  covering  it  with  an  inverted 
tumbler  or  bowl.  Let  it  stand  for  a  couple  of  days,  during  which  time 
spores  discharge,  forming  a  very  pretty  "spore  print"  on  the  paper.  If 
moist  gum  paper  is  used  the  spores  adhere  to  it  and  the  "print"  is  per- 
manent. Spores  from  different  kinds  of  toadstools  are  often  of  different 
colors — blues,  yellows,  reds,  black — so  that  a  variety  of  colored  patterns 
may  be  obtained. 

Look  on  the  trunks  of  trees  for  the  oyster-shell  fungus  and  the  bracket 
fungus.  The  mycelium  of  these  grows  in  the  wood  as  it  decays  and  the 
part  seen  on  the  trunk  is  merely  the  spore-bearing  portion.  Break  one 

52 


THE^SPORE-BEARERS  53 

open  to  see  the  tubes  which  contain  the  spores.    How  do  such  fungi  get 
established  on  the  tree  ?    What  could  be  done  to  prevent  their  attack  ? 

The  moss  plant. — Study  some  moss  plant  like  the  hairy  cap  (Poly- 
trichium).  Note  (i)  the  holdfasts  in  the  soil,  (2)  the  leafy  upright  stem, 
and  on  top  of  this,  at  some  seasons,  (3)  the  spore-bearing  part  consisting  of 
0)  a  stalk  whose  base  is  held  in  the  top  of  the  leafy  stem,  and  (b)  a  spore 
case;  the  latter  is  protected  in  this  particular  moss  by  the  hairy  cap.  When 

i  the  spores  are  ripe  they  shake  out  like  pepper  from  a  pepper  shaker.  The 
perforations  on  top  of  the  spore  case  sometimes  make  a  characteristic  and 
beautiful  pattern. 

Fern  spores. — 'The  spore  cases  on  the  fern  are  found  in  rows  or  clusters 
on  the  back  of  the  fern  frond,  as  in  the  rock  polypody,  or  else  one  or  more 
of  the  leaves  is  given  up  partially  or  entirely  to  the  production  of  spores 
(Clayton's  fern  or  the  cinnamon  fern).  Lay  a  fern  frond  with  well- 
developed  spore  cases,  back  down,  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper.  The  spores 
soon  fall  off.  It  is  interesting  to  sow  these  on  the  surface  of  moist  and  well- 
firmed  soil  in  a  pot  which  is  kept  covered  with  a  plate  of  glass.  The  spore 
develops  into  a  somewhat  leaflike  heart-shaped  structure  (the  prothallium) 
that  grows  flat  on  the  soil  and  sends  down  its  holdfasts.  It  is  only  as  large 
as  the  end  of  a  pencil  or  smaller.  From  this  the  new  fern  plant  grows. 
Such  prothallia  may  often  be  found  on  the  pots  or  benches  in  the  green- 
house, where  the  florist  has  ferns  growing,  or  on  the  moist  soil  in  the  woods 
where  ferns  are  abundant. 

Horsetails. — In  the  horsetail  the  spores  are  grown  in  a  cone-shaped 
structure  at  the  end  of  the  stem.  The  horsetails  or  Equisetae  are  also 

;  known  as  snake  grass  or  as  joint  grass,  because  the  stems  break  apart  so 

i  easily  into  hollow  segments.  One  of  the  common  ones  often  grows  along 
railroad  embankments  or  in  waste  fields.  The  stems  are  very  harsh  to  the 

;  touch,  containing  much  silica,  and  they  are  used,  when  tied  in  bundles,  to 
scour  pans  by  frontier  settlers.  Hence  the  name  "scouring  rush"  is  com- 
monly given  to  the  plant. 

Sterilization. — Rig  up  a  steam  sterilizer  as  follows:  Take  two  lard  pails 
or  other  similar  covered  pails  that  will  set  one  inside  the  other,  leaving  a 
three-  or  four-inch  space  between  bottoms.  Punch  holes  in  the  bottom  and 
one  or  two  in  the  top  of  the  inside  pail.  Put  water  in  the  outer  pail  so  that 
when  boiled  the  steam  will  escape  through  the  inner  pail.  Put  a  piece  of 
moist  bread  in  a  clean  pint  fruit  jar.  Set  the  cover  on  but  do  not  screw  it 
down.  Put  this  in  the  sterilizer  and  steam  for  twenty  minutes.  Let  it 
stand  twenty-four  hours  and  again  steam  twenty  minutes.  Screw  the 
cover  down  and  let  it  stand.  Does  mold  appear  on  the  bread  ?  What  does 
this  show  ?  Shove  a  needle  into  a  wood  handle  about  the  size  of  a  pencil. 


54  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Heat  the  needle  in  a  flame  to  kill  any  spores  that  might  be  on  it.  Then 
draw  the  needle  through  the  spore-bearing  black  mold  or  the  green  mold, 
trying  to  get  spores  of  one  kind  only  on  it.  Open  the  jar  containing  the 
sterilized  bread  and  quickly  draw  the  needle  across  the  surface  of  the  bread. 
Do  not  leave  the  jar  open  longer  than  is  necessary.  When  it  is  closed 
tightly  again  let  it  stand  a  few  days.  Where  does  mold  begin  to  appear 
on  the  bread?  What  kind  is  it?  What  is  your  conclusion?  What  is 
essential  that  any  process  of  sterilization  be  effective  ? 

Useful  fungi.— The  molds  and  other  fungi  are  among  man's  most  useful 
allies,  although. some  of  them  are  also  injurious.  The  soil,  especially  rich 
soil  like  that  of  the  forest,  is  full  of  them,  and  they  decompose  the  organic 
matter  and  reduce  it  to  substances  that  plants  can  use  for  food  once  more. 
The  very  numerous  hyphal  threads  come  in  contact  with  the  roots  and 
help  them  to  get  in  touch  with  adequate  supplies  of  moisture  and  nutrition. 
Examine  rich  garden  soil  or  humus  from  the  woods  to  see  if  you  can  detect 
these  molds. 

Yeast. — One  sort  of  yeast  is  used  constantly  in  bread-making  and  other 
kinds  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  cheese,  etc.  The  compressed 
yeast  cake  is  just  a  mass  of  these  yeast  plants  with  more  or  less  starch  and 
other  foreign  matter.  What  is  its  color  ?  The  dried  yeast  cake  is  the  same, 
dried  out.  Put  a  quarter  of  a  yeast  cake  into  a  half-cup  of  molasses  or 
sugar  syrup  in  a  flask  or  bottle  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  it 
ferments.  The  sugar  is  being  used  in  part  by  the  growing  yeast  plants  for 
food,  but  certain  wastes  are  given  off.  One  is  alcohol,  the  odor  of  which  is 
readily  detected.  Another  may  be  demonstrated  by  fitting  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  or  flask  with  a  cork  from  which  a  delivery  tube  passes  into  a  test 
tube  filled  with  limewater.  What  is  the  result  and  what  process  does  this 
show  is  going  on  in  the  growing  yeast  ?  Why  does  the  yeast  have  to  be 
provided  with  organic  food  like  sugar  ? 

Bacteria. — Many  more  of  the  plants  most  significant  to  man  are  exceed- 
ingly tiny.  Such  are  the  bacteria,  some  of  which  are  very  useful,  like  the 
nitrifying  bacteria  on  the  roots  of  the  leguminous  plants  or  those  that  live 
in  the  human  intestines  and  help  with  the  digestive  processes,  while  others 
are  injurious,  such  as  those  that  cause  tuberculosis.  Draw  a  circle  three 
inches  in  diameter  to  represent  the  cross-section  of  a  human  hair.  Hairs 
vary  in  diameter,  some  persons  having  very  coarse,  others  very  fine,  hair, 
but  one  four-hundredths  of  an  inch  would  be  an  average  diameter.  A  dot 
with  a  sharp  pencil  will  represent  the  diameter  of  a  tubercle  bacillus  and  a 
line  one-eighth  inch  long  its  length  on  the  same  scale. 

Rate  of  reproduction. — Such  bacteria  are  too  small  to  be  seen  Except 
under  very  powerful  microscopes,  but  they  multiply  rapidly  by  repeated 


THE  SPORE-BEARERS  55 

division  so  that  they  form  colonies  that  are  readily  visible,  and  these  usually 
have  a  characteristic  color,  shape,  or  other  peculiarity.  Bacteria  are 
capable  of  such  rapid  reproduction  that  it  is  calculated  that  one  of  them 
growing  without  check  would  develop  a  mass  of  them  as  big  as  the  earth  in 
a  week's  time. 

Cultures. — Very  thoroughly  clean  six  test  tubes  and  two  petrie  dishes  or 
four  saucers,  two  large  and  two  small.  Obtain  some  grape  gelatin,  the 
sort  that  is  sold  at  the  grocery  stores  for  puddings.  Melt  it  according  to 
directions  as  if  preparing  it  for  pudding.  Add  a  quarter-tablespoon  (level) 
of  soda  to  neutralize  the  acid  and  make  it  slightly  alkaline.  Most  bacteria 
grow  best  in  an  alkaline  medium.  Fill  the  test  tubes  one-fourth  full  and 
plug  them  with  absorbent  cotton.  Fill  the  bottoms  of  the  petrie  dishes 
or  the  two  small  saucers,  covering  the  dishes  with  their  covers  or  the  saucers 
each  with  an  inverted  large  saucer.  Put  these  all  in  the  sterilizer  and  steam 
twenty  minutes.  Then  cool,  standing  the  test  tubes  in  a  much-inclined 
position  so  that  the  gelatin  will  set 'at  a  slant  from  near  the  mouth  of  the 
test  tube  to  near  the  bottom  on  the  other  side. 

Planting  bacteria. — Catch  a  fly  and  let  him  crawl  around  on  the  gelatin 
in  one  slant  tube,  then  release  him,  replugging  the  tube.  Label  it  so  that 
you  will  know  which  one  was  used  for  this  experiment.  With  a  toothpick 
scrape  the  teeth  and  smear  the  scrapings  on  the  gelatin  surface  in  another 
slant  tube,  then  plug  it  again  and  label.  Leave  one  of  the  slant  tubes  open 
in  the  schoolroom  for  fifteen  minutes  before  school  and  another  for  fifteen 
minutes  near  the  close  of  the  session.  Plug  each  at  the  end  of  the  time  and 
label.  The  sixth  tube  will  be  left  just  as  it  came  from  the  sterilizer  for 
comparison. 

Let  some  pupil  with  rather  dirty  fingers  press  his  thumb  on  the  gelatin 
in  one  of  the  saucers  (or  petrie  dishes).  Cover  it  immediately;  then  let 
him  wash  his  hands  well  and  come  and  press  the  same  thumb  on  the  gelatin 
in  the  same  saucer  but  on  a  different  spot;  cover  promptly.  The  second 
saucer  will  be  left  as  it  came  from  the  sterilizer.  Set  these  all  aside  where 
they  can  be  at  least  at  room  temperature.  Examine  daily  to  see  if  colonies 
of  bacteria  appear.  Each  spot  is  a  colony  and  the  number  of  spots  that 
appear  will  give  some  idea  of  the  number  of  bacteria  or  mold  spores  that 
were  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  gelatin. 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS 

In  this  work  it  is  imperative  to  have  the  animals  themselves  in  the 
schoolroom  for  observation.  The  cat  and  dog  may  be  brought  daily  by 
some  pupil.  The  squirrel  and  rabbit  may  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  for 
a  few  weeks  during  observation.  A  cage  may  be  improvised  from  a  large 
box  and  some  inch-mesh  galvanized  wire  netting.  Do  not  use  the  wire 
mosquito  bar  for  cages.  Animals  will  gnaw  off  the  paint  with  which  it  is 
coated,  with  disastrous  results.  Sawdust  or  dry  earth  spread  on  the  bottom 
of  the  cage  will  add  to  the  animal's  comfort.  A  pan  of  drinking  water 
should  be  provided.  Feed  rabbits  and  squirrels  on  dry  foods — corn,  oats, 
bread  crusts,  nuts  for  the  squirrel,  and  an  occasional  bit  of  lettuce  or  grass 
or  other  green  stuff.  This  avoids  offensive  odors.  Keep  the  cage  clean. 

The  cat  and  dog. — 

Feeding. — It  i§  well  to  have  more  than  one  cat  to  observe,  as  puss  is 
likely  to  be  more  or  less  stagestruck  and  refuse  to  eat  in  the  presence  of  so 
many  spectators.  Have  ready  for  this  lesson  two  or  three  bones  with  a 
little  meat  upon  them,  as  pork  or  mutton  chops.  Now  give  the  cat  a 
bone  and  gather  about  quietly  to  watch  her  eat.  While  she  is  cleaning  the 
bone  answer  the  following  questions  to  bring  out  significant  points:  Does 
she  eat  at  once  or  does  she  sniff  at  the  food  and  take  a  little  time  to  inspect 
it  before  she  begins  to  eat  ?  Does  she  try  to  run  off  with  the  food  ?  If  so, 
where  does  she  go  to  eat  it  ?  How  does  she  hold  the  bone  while  she  eats  ? 
Does  she  use  her  claws  to  hold  it  ?  Does  she  stand  up  or  lie  down  while 
eating  ?  Does  she  eat  hurriedly  or  slowly  ?  Does  it  disturb  her  to  have 
you  move  around  while  she  eats  ?  Does  she  bite  off  the  meat  as  you  would 
bite  it  off  a  bone  or  as  you  would  bite  corn  off  a  cob  ?  What  teeth  does 
she  use  ?  Could  you  use  the  same  teeth  to  bite  with  ?  Does  a  cat  chew 
her  food  well  ?  Why  does  she  lick  the  bone  ?  When  she  licks  your  hand 
does  her  tongue  feel  soft  and  smooth,  like  your  own?  Give  a  cat  a  few 
loose  bits  of  meat  or  scraps  of  other  food.  Does  she  seize  them  quickly 
or  deliberately  ?  Does  she  stop  to  chew  them  well  ?  Bring  in  a  second  cat 
while  the  first  one  is  feeding.  Watch  their  behavior.  Give  the  second  cat 
some  scraps  to  eat  near  where  the  first  one  is  feeding.  What  follows  ? 

Provide  a  bone  and  some  scraps  of  food.  Have  someone  bring  a  dog 
to  school.  Be  sure  that  it  is  hungry,  then  feed  it  while  it  is  being  watched. 
The  same  series  of  questions  used  for  the  cat  may  form  the  outline  for  the 

56 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS  57 

study  of  the  dog's  feeding.     It  will  be  unwise,  however,  to  bring  in  a  second 
dog  unless  there  is  an  abundance  for  both. 

Drinking. — After  he  has  eaten  give  the  dog  a  drink.     How  does  he  get 
the  water  ?     Watch  to  see  the  shape  of  his  tongue  as  he  laps  it.     Let  some- 
one go  to  the  board  to  draw  the  shape.     Watch  to  see  how  the  cat  drinks 
milk.     Does  a  horse  drink  as  a  dog  does  ?     How  does  a  cow  drink  ? 
Squirrels  and  rabbits. — 

Feeding. — For  this  lesson  have  the  squirrels  and  rabbits  in  the  school- 
room. It  is  wise  to  cover  the  entire  outside  of  the  box  that  you  use  as  a 
cage,  and  not  the  open  side  only,  with  the  inch-mesh  galvanized- wire 
netting  or  else  protect  vulnerable  points  with  strips  of  tin.  These  animals 
are  rodents  and  will  gnaw  their  way  to  freedom  and  mischief  in  the  school- 
room if  opportunity  offers. 

Watch  the  rabbits  and  squirrels  eat.  How  does  the  squirrel  hold  the 
nut  ?  Does  he  crack  it  as  you  would  crack  a  nut  ?  What  teeth  does  he 
use  ?  What  is  their  shape  ?  Does  he  chew  the  nut  well  ?  Does  he  eat  the 

i  nut  where  you  give  it  to  him  or  does  he  run  off  to  some  other  part  of  the 
cage  to  eat  it  ?  What  position  does  he  take  while  he  is  eating  ?  After  he 

,  has  eaten  all  he  needs  what  does  he  do  with  other  nuts  you  give  him? 
Compare  the  rabbit's  method  of  eating  with  that  of  the  squirrel.  Can  the 
rabbit  hold  food  in  its  forepaws  when  it  eats  ?  Can  you  ? 

Drinking. — Take  the  pan  of  drinking  water  out  of  the  cage  and  leave 

I  it  out  for  several  hours  so  that  the  animals  will  be  sure  to  be  thirsty.     Then 

!  put  in  fresh  water  and  observe  the  method  of  drinking.  Compare  with  the 
dog  and  horse.  From  your  observations  do  you  think  that  animals  get 
hungry  and  thirsty  as  we  do  ?  This  will  afford  an  appropriate  opportunity 

;  for  simple  directions  on  the  care  of  pets. 

Perchance  this  work  as  outlined  appears  so  commonplace  that  it  will 
seem  to  some  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  valuable  time  on  what  is  not 
only  familiar  but  also  insignificant.  But  a  careful  study  of  these  familiar 

;  matters  will  convince  one  that  what  is  so  commonplace  is  not  always 
therefore  well  known.  Moreover,  there  is  more  of  significance  in  these 

i  observations  than  one  might  at  first  think.  There  is  a  volume  of  ancestral 
history  revealed  in  some  of  these  apparently  trifling  mannerisms.  The  cat, 
for  instance,  you  will  find  sniffs  daintily  of  her  food,  eats  leisurely,  and 
prefers  to  have  her  meal  in  seclusion.  The  dog  bolts  his  food  with  all  pos- 
sible celerity,  growling  meanwhile  at  any  possible  interference  and  yet  not 
seeming  to  be  greatly  disturbed  by  onlookers.  One  can  see  at  once  the 
inherited  traits  outcropping.  The  cat  has  always  been  a  solitary  hunter. 
Her  ancestors  did  not  hunt  together,  as  the  dog  tribe  has  usually  done. 
The  members  of  the  great  cat  family  are  accustomed  through  generations  of 


58  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

usage  quietly  to  partake  of  the  prey  which  they  have  hunted  alone  and 
killed  in  the  solitude  of  the  forest  or  jungle.  Not  so  the  dog  tribe.  They 
have  hunted  in  packs,  and  when  the  kill  was  at  last  accomplished  each 
animal  seized  his  share,  eating  amid  a  jostling  crowd  of  hungry  fellows. 
Each  secured  the  choicest  morsel  possible  and  defended  it  against  all  comers. 
Yet  each  was  anxious  to  stow  a  large  share  of  the  plunder  in  the  shortest 
time  in  that  one  spot  secure  from  the  claims  of  disputants. 

This  has  not  been  suggested  with  the  expectation  that  so  much  of 
philosophizing  will  be  attempted  with  pupils  of  the  lower  grades,  but  merely 
to  give  the  teacher  an  inkling  of  what  may  be  disclosed  by  the  observations 
we  are  now  making. 

Methods  of  motion. — Watch  a  cat  move  from  place  to  place.  Does 
she  walk?  Does  she  run?  Does  she  go  in  any  other  way?  Note  par- 
ticularly the  crouching  attitude  assumed  by  the  cat  as  she  intently  watches 
a  moving  object;  then  see  the  few  quick  bounds  with  which  she  reaches 
it.  Try  putting  the  cat  on  a  post  or  tree  trunk  and  watch  her  come  down. 
Coax  her  to  climb  by  holding  a  piece  of  meat  or  other  food  upon  the  tree 
just  out  of  her  reach.  As  she  climbs  have  the  children  observe  how  she 
does  it.  Does  pussy  climb  as  a  boy  would  climb  a  tree  ? 

Now  watch  the  dog  as  he  runs  about.  Does  he  walk,  run,  jump,  or 
climb  ?  How  did  you  get  the  dog  to  come  to  school  ?  Did  his  master  just 
call  him  ?  Did  puss  follow  her  mistress  to  school  or  did  she  have  to  be 
carried  ?  Watch  the  rabbit  and  squirrel  to  see  how  they  move  about. 
Does  the  rabbit  walk  or  run  like  a  dog  ?  Watch  the  squirrel  climb  and 
note  whether  he  does  it  as  a  cat  climbs.  Watch  the  squirrels  and  chip- 
munks in  the  woods  and  see  what  they  are  busy  doing  these  days. 

Cleanliness. — Let  the  cat  have  some  milk  to  drink  or  a  bone  to  gnaw 
and  after  she  has  finished  watch  her  at  her  toilet.  She  usually  cleans  her- 
self after  feeding.  How  does  she  use  her  tongue  in  the  process  ?  What  use 
does  she  make  of  her  paws  ?  Does  she  ever  go  in  for  a  swim  ?  Does  the 
dog  like  to  go  in  the  water?  Do  you  give  your  dog  a  chance  to  take  a 
bath?  Watch  the  squirrel  and  rabbit  as  they  wash  and  clean  their  fur. 
During  the  week  when  this  topic  of  cleanliness  is  being  studied  it  will  be 
well,  whenever  the  squirrels  or  rabbits  are  cleaning  their  faces,  to  take 
time  to  watch  them,  as  this  process  cannot  be  produced  at  will  as  feed- 
ing can. 

Sleep. — Do  dogs  and  cats  sleep  ?  rabbits  and  squirrels  ?  What  position 
does  the  cat  take  when  she  sleeps  ?  Where  does  she  like  best  to  go  to  sleep  ? 
Where  does  the  dog  prefer  to  sleep?  What  position  does  he  take  when 
asleep  ?  What  motions  does  he  usually  make  before  he  lies  down  ?  Does 
the  cat  sleep  much  in  the  daytime?  Does  the  dog?  Have  you  a  good 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS  59 

bed  for  your  dog?  The  animal's  bed  should  frequently  be  renewed,  for 
old  straw  that  it  may  sleep  upon  readily  accumulates  vermin.  If  the 
dog  sleeps  in  a  kennel,  as  it  should,  this  should  be  whitewashed  inside  at 
least  twice  a  year.  It  is  important  to  keep  the  quarters  that  animals 
occupy  in  sanitary  condition,  not  alone  for  the  sake  of  their  comfort,  but 
because  when  we  make  them  our  companions  it  is  a  source  of  danger  to  us 
if  they  are  diseased. 

What  becomes  of  the  squirrels  in  the  winter  time  ?  Do  dogs  like  to  be 
out  of  doors  in  the  snow  ?  Do  cats  ?  Will  your  dog  run  through  the  deep 
snow  and  frolic  with  you  ?  Will  the  cat  ?  Are  rabbits  out  in  the  winter 
time  ?  What  do  they  feed  on  then  ? 

Senses. — -Hide  a  piece  of  meat  in  the  schoolroom  within  easy  reach  and 
let  in  a  hungry  cat.  How  long  does  it  take  her  to  find  the  meat  ?  Make  a 
similar  test  at  home.  When  the  regular  feeding  time  for  the  cat  comes  let 
her  see  you  with  a  saucer  of  milk  and  then  hide  it  while  someone  holds 
her  and  see  how  long  it  will  take  her  to  find  it.  Try  a  dog  in  the  school- 
room in  the  same  way  and  see  if  he  can  find  the  meat  as  quickly  as  the  cat 
did.  Do  not  make  the  task  too  difficult,  but  place  the  meat  where  it  can 
easily  be  found,  hiding  it  in  the  same  place  for  the  cat  and  the  dog.  Which 
do  you  find  has  the  keener  sense  of  smell,  a  dog  or  a  cat  ? 

Place  the  cat  at  one  end  of  the  room  and  roll  a  rubber  ball  across  to 
the  opposite  end.  Make  as  little  noise  as  possible  in  rolling  it  and  let 
everyone  keep  very  still  so  as  not  to  distract  puss's  attention.  Does  she 
catch  sight  of  the  ball  quickly  ?  Make  the  same  test  with  the  dog.  Does 
he  see  the  moving  object  as  quickly  ?  Which  can  see  farthest,  a  dog  or  a 
cat  ?  Devise  and  try  some  tests  out  of  doors  and  at  home,  with  cats  and 
dogs,  to  answer  this  question. 

Stand  the  length  of  the  schoolroom  away  from  the  rabbit  cage  and  make 
some  unusual  sound  like  a  low  whistle.  Do  the  rabbits  prick  up  their  ears 
and  stare  in  your  direction  ?  Stand  at  the  same  distance  from  the  squirrel 
cage  and  make  the  same  noise,  as  loud  as  before.  Do  the  squirrels  hear  it  ? 
Repeat  the  test  for  rabbits  and  squirrels,  varying  the  intensity  of  the  sound 
until  you  can  decide  which  has  the  keener  hearing. 

It  is  probable  that  you  will  not  have  time  for  testing  more  than  a  single 
sense.  It  is  better  to  repeat  one  test  until  satisfied  that  the  results  are 
trustworthy  than  to  attempt  several.  More  than  one  test  is  suggested  that 
choice  may  be  exercised  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  teacher.  This  experi- 
mental work  marks  a  step  in  advance  of  simple  observation.  The  method 
of  presentation  is  important.  State  the  question  to  be  settled  to  the  pupils. 
Be  sure  that  they  understand  it.  Lead  them  by  appropriate  questions  to 
suggest  the  test  that  is  to  be  made.  Assure  yourself  that  they  understand 


60  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

what  is  being  done  and  what  it  is  done  for.  Secure  from  them  at  the  close 
of  the  work  a  statement  of  the  experiment  and  its  result. 

Uses. — Tell  what  you  can  of  the  uses  of  the  cat,  dog,  cow,  horse,  rabbit, 
and  squirrel.  What  service  do  the  St.  Bernard  and  Eskimo  dogs  render  ? 

The  following  are  a  few  suggestions  of  sources  of  good  stories :  Nesbitt's 
Pussy  and  Doggy  Tales,  Houlis ton's  Cat  Tails  and  Other  Tales,  De  la  Ramee's 
Dog  of  Flanders,  Mother  Goose  Rhymes.  Old  files  of  the  Youth's  Companion 
and  St.  Nicholas  will  afford  good  stories  of  these  animals.  Many  of  the 
child's  poems  of  animal  life  have  been  set  to  music  and  may  appropriately 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  nature-study.  Mother  Goose  Melodies, 
published  by  McLaughlin  Brothers,  contains  " Pussy  Cat,  Pussy  Cat," 
"Poor  Dog  Bright,"  "I  Had  a  Little  Doggy,"  and  others.  Equally  good 
songs  may  be  found  in  any  standard  collection  suited  to  the  lower  grades. 

Familiarize  yourself  with  some  of  the  good  animal  pictures  and  their 
artists.  The  following  are  suggestions:  Adam's  " Kittens,"  Landseer's 
" Dignity  and  Impudence,"  Holmes's  "Kiss  Me,"  Troyon's  "Oxen  Going 
to  Work,"  Bonheur's  "Cattle  of  Brittany"  and  "Horse  Fair." 

Need  of  protection. — Need  a  squirrel  be  afraid  of  a  cow  ?  of  a  cat  ?  of  a 
dog?  of  a  rabbit?  Why?  (Recall  food  and  feeding  habits  already 
studied.)  Need  a  cat  be  afraid  of  a  squirrel  ?  of  a  dog  ?  of  a  cow  ?  Need 
a  dog  fear  a  horse?  Need  a  wolf  fear  a  horse?  a  cow?  Why?  It  is 
presumed  that  many  of  this  series  of  questions  will  be  answered  from  the 
observations  that  pupils  have  made. 

Need  a  dog  be  afraid  of  another  dog  ?  a  cat  of  another  cat  ?  Have  you 
ever  seen  squirrels  or  rabbits  or  horses  fight?  Such  questions  make  clear 
the  fact  that  animals  frequently  need  protection  from  others  of  the  same 
kind  quite  as  much  as  from  their  mutual  enemies. 

Why  does  not  a  rabbit  freeze  in  the  winter  ?  Have  you  ever  found  a 
dead  bird?  What  do  you  think  killed  it?  Have  you  ever  found  other 
wild  animals  dead,  such  as  squirrels,  field  mice,  frogs,  etc.  ?  As  a  result 
of  such  questions  it  will  be  shown  how  essential  it  is  that  animals  be  pro- 
tected from  adverse  physical  conditions,  such  as  cold,  rain,  and  storms. 
It  is  well  for  the  child  to  realize,  not  how  strenuous  the  struggle  for  existence 
is  among  the  animals  afield,  but  that  it  is  strenuous.  It  will  lead  to  many 
kindly  acts.  Crumbs  thrown  out  at  the  door,  a  handful  of  corn  deposited 
weekly  in  the  same  spot,  a  few  nuts  left  always  on  the  same  stump,  a  crust 
of  bread  left  every  few  days  in  the  same  place  in  the  woods  will  not  only 
help  develop  a  thoughtful  care  for  the  unfortunate,  but  it  will  acquaint  the 
child  with  the  many  unfamiliar  birds  that  will  come  to  his  dooryard  for 
food.  It  will  give  him  autographical  sketches,  unconsciously  written  in 
the  tracks  in  sand  or  snow,  about  the  spot  he  may  choose  for  his  beneficence. 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS  61 

Where  do  the  wild  rabbits  live  ?  Where  do  the  squirrels  live  ?  What  other 
familiar  animals  live  in  holes,  in  trees,  or  in  the  earth?  Where  are  the 
homes  of  chipmunks,  gophers,  ground  hogs,  and  muskrats,  and  what  are 
their  habits  ?  Perhaps  something  can  be  learned  of  the  structure  of  these 
houses  and  their  uses  as  storehouses  for  food  as  well  as  places  of  retreat. 
Ernest  Ingersoll's  Wild  Life  of  Orchard  and  Field  has  some  fascinating 
chapters  on  these  common  rodents  and  their  homes. 

Means  of  protection. — When  do  cats,  dogs,  and  horses  shed  their  hair 
and  why  do  they  do  it  ?  When  do  they  need  their  heaviest  coat  ?  Where 
do  the  animals  with  very  thick  fur  live  ?  What  are  some  of  the  animals 
whose  fur  man  uses  ? 

When  a  dog  chases  a  cat  how  does  she  defend  herself  ?  (See  Ernest 
Thompson  Seton's  Johnny  Bear.)  If  a  dog  should  run  after  a  squirrel  how 
could  the  squirrel  protect  itself  ?  Could  a  cat  escape  from  a  dog  by  flight  ? 
Could  a  rabbit  run  away  from  a  dog  ?  Could  it  defend  itself  against  a  dog  ? 
How  would  it  escape  harm  ?  Could  a  horse  run  away  from  a  troublesome 
dog  ?  How  could  a  horse  protect  itself  from  a  dog  in  a  way  other  than  by 
flight  ? 

In  answering  the  foregoing  questions  probably  horns,  hoofs,  teeth,  and 
claws  will  be  mentioned  as  weapons  of  defense.  Name  other  animals 
besides  those  mentioned  above  that  use  claws,  or  teeth,  or  hoofs,  or  horns 
for  defense.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  defensive  structures  besides 
horns,  hoofs,  teeth,  and  claws  ?  Do  all  the  deer  have  horns  ?  Which  sheep 
have  horns  ?  Why  do  roosters  have  spurs  when  the  hens  have  none  ? 
Can  you  think  of  other  animals  in  which  the  males  are  especially  armed 
with  means  of  defense  ?  Tell  the  story  of  the  fight  of  the  male  to  defend 
the  young  or  the  females.  Such  stories  are  to  be  found  in  Roberts'  Heart 
of  the  Ancient  Wood,  chapter  viii,  "Red  Dog"  in  Kipling's  Second  Jungle 
Book,  "Lobo"  in  Thompson  Seton's  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known.  Some 
effective  pictures  to  show  just  at  this  point  are  Landseer's  "Deer  Pass," 
"  The  Combat,"  and  Thompson  Seton's  "  Krag,  the  Kootenay  Ram."  Make 
emphatic  this  especial  adaptation  of  the  male  to  protect  the  weaker  females 
and  the  unprotected  young.  Lead  the  children  to  admire  his  reckless 
expenditure  of  strength  and  even  of  life  in  so  doing.  The  natural  pugnacity 
of  the  boy  may  be  directed  toward  gallantry  and  the  protection  of  the 
weak.  This  fighting  instinct  that  sooner  or  later  possesses  every  normal 
lad  needs  not  repression  but  encouragement  and  proper  guidance. 

The  sense  organs  as  protectors. — The  keenness  of  the  animal's  senses 
plays  an  important  part  in  its  protection.  That  animal  escapes  detection 
whose  sharp  eye,  quick  ear,  and  sensitive  nose  give  it  warning  while  the 
source  of  danger  is  yet  a  great  way  off.  Recall  the  results  of  tests  suggested 


62  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

in  previous  lessons  to  determine  which  of  these  common  pets  has  the  sharp- 
est sight,  the  most  acute  smell,  and  the  finest  sense  of  hearing. 

Compare  the  eye  of  the  cat  with  that  of  the  other  animals  we  are  study- 
ing. How  does  it  differ  from  theirs  ?  Do  lions  and  tigers  have  pupils  of 
the  same  shape?  What  other  animals  have  such  slit-shaped  pupils? 
This  form  of  pupil  permits  of  very  wide  expansion  and  the  animals  that 
possess  it  are  usually  night  prowlers,  seeking  their  prey  under  cover  of 
darkness  or  the  forest's  gloom.  When  you  shut  puss  in  the  cellar  to  catch 
a  mouse  do  you  have  to  put  a  lamp  there  too  so  that  she  can  see  ?  Does  a 
dog  like  to  be  shut  in  the  dark  ? 

It  is  evident  that  these  alert  sense  organs  are  important  not  alone  to 
give  adequate  warning  of  enemies  but  also  to  assist  in  tracking  and  captur- 
ing the  prey.  Why  is  a  dog  used  in  hunting  ?  When  you  play  hide  and 
seek  with  your  dog  how  does  he  find  you  ?  Does  he  follow  you,  nose  to  the 
ground,  or  does  he  just  run  about  looking  for  you  ?  How  does  the  hunter's 
dog  find  the  game  ?  The  acute  sense  of  smell  of  the  noted  St.  Bernard  dogs 
has  saved  the  life  of  many  a  traveler.  Look  up  the  story  of  some  hunt 
where  the  dog's  tracking  power  has  been  important.  A  good  one  is  to  be 
found  in  the  closing  chapters  of  Charles  G.  D.  Roberts'  "Romance  of  Red 
Fox"  in  Outing  for  September,  1905. 

Man  has  largely  lost  his  keen  sense  of  smell  because  he  uses  it  so  little. 
It  is  said  that  savages,  like  the  American  Indians  when  the  white  man  first 
came  to  this  country,  would  track  their  prey  or  their  enemies  by  the  sense 
of  smell.  Now  we  use  the  sense  of  sight.  Can  you  tell  a  rabbit's  track  ? 
a  squirrel's  ?  Can  you  tell  in  which  direction  the  dog  is  traveling  from  his 
tracks  ?  Draw  a  dog's  track.  Can  you  tell  from  a  rabbit's  or  squirrel's 
tracks  which  way  the  animal  has  gone?  Read  "How  Bunny  Writes  His 
Autograph"  in  Gibson's  Sharp  Eyes. 

Notice  that  a  dog's  nose  is  cold  and  moist.  Try  the  following  experi- 
ment and  then  see  if  you  can  tell  why  the  dog's  nose  is  wet.  With  a  clean 
handkerchief  wipe  dry  the  surface  of  the  tongue.  Sprinkle  a  pinch  of 
sugar  on  the  dry  surface  and  keep  the  mouth  open.  When  is  the  sweet 
taste  noticed  ?  What  other  animals  have  moist  noses  ?  Do  they  have  a 
keen  sense  of  smell  also?  Notice  the  reading  of  the  thermometer  in  the 
schoolroom.  Then  wrap  a  moist  cloth  about  the  bulb.  In  a  few  minutes 
note  the  reading  again.  Now  can  you  tell  why  the  dog's  nose  is  cold  ? 

Protective  color  and  habits. — The  animal's  weapons  and  senses  are  not 
its  only  means  of  protection.  What  is  the  color  of  the  wild  hare  in  winter  ? 
what  during  the  rest  of  the  year  ?  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  change  of 
color  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  squirrels  in  your  neighborhood  ?  Where 
do  they  live  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the  tree  trunks  ?  What  is  the  color  of 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS  63 

the  deer's  coat  ?  of  the  fawn's  ?  Can  you  think  of  other  animals  of  your 
own  region  that  are  protectively  colored  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  a  skunk  ?  of  a  hornet  ?  Some  of  these  animals 
that  have  a  sting  or  other  adequate  means  of  defense  are  brightly  colored 
and  therefore  conspicuous.  The  bright  color  serves  to  advertise  their 
disagreeable  qualities.  Some  of  the  great  cats  illustrate  well  another 
phase  of  coloration.  They  are  colored  like  their  surroundings,  not  to  save 
them  from  attack,  but  so  they  can  creep  up  without  detection  and  capture 
their  prey.  The  lion  inhabitant  of  the  desert  regions  has  a  coat  of  sandy 
hue.  The  tiger,  lurking  among  the  reeds  and  rushes  of  the  river's  margin, 
is  striped  with  alternate  bands  of  yellow  and  black.  The  leopard,  jaguar, 
and  many  other  forest-inhabiting  animals  are  mottled  to  match  the  sun- 
light and  shadow  on  the  forest  floor. 

Certain  habits  of  these  common  pets,  relics  of  their  wild  ancestry,  are 
protective  in  their  purpose.  Do  you  ever  see  a  number  of  dogs  on  the 
street  together  ?  Do  cats  run  about  in  packs  ?  If  one  dog  starts  to  chase 
a  cow  what  do  other  dogs  that  are  near  by  do?  How  do  wolves  hunt? 
tigers  ?  Read  chapter  xvii  of  Du  Chaillu's  Land  of  the  Long  Night.  Which 
of  the  common  domestic  animals  go  in  herds?  Their  wild  relations  do 
the  same.  Wolves  will  readily  kill  one  cow,  but  when  the  herd  stands 
together  with  lowered  heads  the  circle  of  horns  effectually  resists  the 
attack. 

Besides  the  stories  already  mentioned  the  following  are  suggested: 
"Mother  Wolf's  Story,"  St.  Nicholas,  March,  1903;  Lion  and  Tiger  Stories, 
republished  from  St.  Nicholas,  in  book  form,  by  the  Century  Company; 
Porter's  Wild  Beasts. 

Structure  of  the  leg. — All  these  animals  have  head,  trunk,  tail,  and 
limbs.  Do  angleworms  have  these  parts  ?  Can  you  think  of  other  animals 
that  do  not  have  them  ?  of  some  that  do  ?  Note  the  parts  of  the  leg  of  a 
cat,  the  upper  leg,  lower  leg,  foot,  toes.  Does  the  cat  have  joints  as  we  do  ? 
Notice  the  parts  of  your  own  arm,  upper  arm,  forearm,  hand,  and  ringers. 
Does  the  dog  have  joints  in  its  legs  ?  How  many  are  there  in  the  foreleg  ? 
Are  they  similar  to  those  of  the  cat's  foreleg  in  number  and  position  ?  Are 
they  similar  to  your  own  joints  at  knuckles,  wrist,  and  elbow  ?  Compare 
the  foreleg  of  the  squirrel  and  rabbit.  How  many  joints  are  there  ?  Are 
they  similar  in  position  to  those  of  the  dog  and  cat?  Make  an  outline 
sketch  of  a  person's  arm  and  then  of  the  foreleg  of  each  of  these  animals  to 
show  the  number  of  joints  and  the  parts  between  joints.  Then  reduce 
these  sketches  to  straight-line  diagrams  in  which  the  joints  are  represented 
by  spaces  and  the  structures  between  the  joints  by  lines.  Your  own  arm 
would  be  diagrammatically  represented  on  p.  64,  Fig.  5. 


64  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

The  hind  leg. — Notice  the  cat's  hind  leg.  How  many  joints  does  it 
have  ?  Feel  it  carefully  and  see.  How  do  these  joints  compare  in  number 
and  position  with  those  of  the  foreleg?  Study  the  hind  leg  of  the  dog, 
squirrel,  and  rabbit.  Compare  with  that  of  the  cat.  Sketch  the  hind  leg 
and  reduce  to  diagrams  in  the  same  way  as  already  described  for  the  foreleg. 
Write  a  description  of  what  you  have  observed  regarding  the  structure  of 
the  fore  and  hind  legs  of  these  animals.  To  hold  one  set  of  facts  in  mind 
and  compare  it  with  another  and  still  another  and  finally  with  a  whole 
series — to  see  a  fundamental  unity  underlying  superficial  differences  is  to 
take  a  step  in  advance  of  mere  observation. 

Vertebrates. — Feel  of  the  cat  and  dog  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  skeleton. 
Feel  the  vertebral  column,  extending  from  head  to  tip  of  tail.  Do  horses 
and  cows  have  a  backbone  ?  Do  we  ?  What  other  animals  that  you 
know  have  a  backbone  ?  Feel  the  ribs  and  breastbone;  then  note  that  the 
head  is  a  bony  mass.  Feel  the  shoulder  blade  that  fastens  the  foreleg  to 


FIG.  5. — Diagram  of  forearm 

the  body.  When  the  cat  is  not  standing  on  her  feet  this  bone,  to  which 
the  foreleg  is  attached,  may  be  easily  moved  about,  as  it  is  simply  imbedded 
in  the  muscle,  not  fastened  to  the  other  bones.  Demonstrate  this  to  your 
own  satisfaction.  Feel  the  hip  bone,  to  which  the  hind  legs  attach  and 
which  fastens,  in  turn,  to  the  vertebral  column.  Are  there  bones  in  the 
legs?  What  is  their  relation  to  the  joints  that  we  have  noted  and  dia- 
grammed ?  Why  does  a  cat  have  bones  ?  Does  an  oyster  have  bones  ? 

Is  a  cat's  hind  leg  straight,  like  yours?  How  is  the  leg  bent  in  the 
process  of  jumping  ?  Try  a  jump  and  notice  your  movements.  Now  can 
you  tell  why  the  cat's  hind  leg  is  always  bent  ?  Watch  the  cat  jump  down 
from  a  table.  How  does  she  use  the  hind  legs  ?  On  which  legs  does  she 
alight?  How  does  the  way  in  which  the  foreleg  is  attached  to  the  body 
make  it  easy  for  her  to  alight  ?  How  could  the  structure  of  the  legs  help 
the  cat  in  hunting  ?  Which  has  the  straighter  legs,  a  dog  or  a  cat  ?  Which 
can  run  faster?  Think  of  other  animals  that  can  run  fast  and  far.  Do 
they  have  straight  legs  or  legs  bent  like  a  cat's  hind  leg  ?  Make  a  list  of  the 
very  speedy  animals  and  those  vertebrates  that  do  not  run  well.  Note  the 
length  of  the  leg  and  the  straightness  of  the  leg. 

Structure  and  use. — How  many  toes  has  the  cat  ?  dog  ?  rabbit  ?  pig  ? 
cow  ?  horse  ?  Why  can  puss  walk  so  quietly  ?  Feel  the  underside  of  her 


ANIMAL  COMPANIONS  65 

feet.  Feel  the  dog's  feet.  Which  are  softer  ?  Notice  how  the  kitten  uses 
her  claws  and  how  perfectly  they  are  under  her  control.  Where  does  she 
keep  her  claws  when  they  are  not  in  use?  Can  a  dog  sheath  his  claws? 
Which  has  sharper  claws,  a  dog  or  a  cat  ?  Why  ?  Recall  how  "the  cat  and 
dog  held  the  bone  when  gnawing  it.  How  does  the  hoof  serve  a  horse 
better  than  claws  would  ?  Dogs  are  used  for  hunting  because  they  have 
a  keen  sense  of  smell  (how  did  you  prove  it?)  and  because  they  can  run 
swiftly  and  for  a  long  time.  Their  relatives  the  wolves  hunt  in  packs  and 
run  down  very  fleet-footed  animals.  The  dog  or  wolf  chasing  its  prey  over 
rough  ground  needs  what  ?  The  cat  does  not  chase  its  prey,  but,  as  we 
have  seen  before,  creeps  up  stealthily  and  then  pounces  on  it  with  a  few 
powerful  leaps.  How  is  her  structure  well  adapted  to  this?  To  what 
is  the  dog's  straighter  leg  adapted  ?  Does  the  rabbit's  structure  fit  it  for 
a  long  run  or  for  a  few  quick  leaps  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  a  hound's  body 
when  seen  from  the  front?  of  a  squirrel's?  What  other  animals  have  a 
deep,  narrow  body  ?  Think  of  others  whose  body  is  round.  Can  you  tell 
why  a  hound's  body  is  narrow  and  deep,  like  a  boat  ? 

Continual  care  must  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  lest  the  nature-study 
degenerates  into  the  observation  of  unimportant  details.  Thus  merely 
to  have  children  count  the  toes  of  cats,  dogs,  rabbits,  squirrels,  cows,  and 
horses  is  scarcely  worth  while  if  the  work  stops  there.  Let  this  be  but  the 
first  step  in  the  discovery  of  the  significant  relations  between  form  and  length 
of  leg,  number  and  character  of  the  toes,  speed  and  endurance  of  the  animal, 
and  its  habits  of  hunting  or  means  of  escape. 

The  head. — Compare  the  shape  of  the  hound's  head  with  the  shape  of 
the  squirrel's.  The  former  has  a  long,  pointed  head,  the  latter  a  compact, 
round  one.  Feel  on  your  own  face  the  point  where  the  lower  jaw  hinges. 
This  can  readily  be  done  as  you  open  and  close  your  mouth.  Now  feel  the 
cheeks  as  you  bite  some  hard  object.  You  can  notice  the  location  of  the 
strong  muscles  by  which  the  mouth  is  shut,  as  they  swell  in  action.  These 
are  the  muscles  that  a  squirrel  uses  as  he  chisels  away  the  shell  of  a  nut  with 
the  sharp  front  teeth.  Think  of  the  lower  jaw  as  a  lever,  the  fulcrum  at  the 
point  where  it  hinges.  The  weight  is  the  resistance  to  be  overcome  by 
the  teeth  in  biting  into  an  object.  The  power  is  applied  by  these  jaw 
muscles  we  have  felt.  Draw  a  diagram  of  the  long  jaw  of  a  hound  and  the 
short  jaw  of  a  squirrel,  marking  fulcrum,  weight,  and  power  on  each.  Take 
a  stick,  like  a  ruler;  fasten  one  end  by  a  single  screw  to  a  wall  or  table  and 
attach  a  weight  at  the  other  end.  Tie  a  string  near  the  middle  of  the  ruler; 
run  this  up  over  a  pulley  made  by  putting  a  small  spool  on  a  nail  in  the  wall; 
attach  weights  to  the  free  end  of  the  string  to  balance  the  weight  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  ruler,  thus  holding  the  latter  horizontal.  The  apparatus 


66  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

will  roughly  represent  the  arrangements  of  mechanical  elements  in  the 
squirrel's  jaw.  Notice  how  much  power  is  required  to  balance  the  weight 
attached  at  the  end  of  the  ruler.  Now  use  a  longer  stick;  have  the  weight 
at  its  end  and  the  distance  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point  of  attachment  of 
the  string  about  the  same  as  before.  Do  you  need  more  or  less  weight  on 
the  string  to  hold  the  stick  horizontal  ?  Would  it  then  be  best  for  an  animal 
that  needed  to  bite  hard  to  have  a  short  jaw  or  a  long  jaw  ?  What  sort  of 
a  dog  can  bite  hardest  ?  Has  he  a  long  or  short  jaw  ?  Why  does  a  hound 
have  a  long  head  ?  Compare  a  cat's  teeth  with  those  of  a  dog.  Are  they 
alike  ?  Are  they  like  your  own  ?  Are  they  like  those  of  a  horse  or  cow  or 
sheep  ?  How  are  the  sharp,  cutting  teeth  of  the  dog  or  cat  well  adapted  to 
its  methods  of  eating  ?  What  do  you  feed  a  horse  or  cow  ?  Why  do  they 
have  flat-crowned  teeth  ?  State  the  relation  of  the  kind  of  teeth  to  the 
habits  of  the  animal. 

Note  the  position  of  the  organs  of  special  sense — eyes,  ears,  nose, 
tongue.  Is  there  any  advantage  in  having  the  sense  organs  on  the  head 
end  ?  What  is  the  use  of  a  cat's  whiskers  ? 

Wild  relatives. — -We  have  seen  that  the  cat  is  a  warmth-loving  creature. 
She  loves  to  lie  stretched  before  the  fire  and  curls  up  to  sleep  in  the  warmest 
corner.  She  goes  out  regretfully  in  winter  and  then  gingerly  treads  the 
snowy  paths.  From  these  observed  peculiarities  what  would  you  infer 
regarding  the  probable  habitat  of  the  great  cats — her  wild  relatives  ? 

Endeavor  to  form  clear  mental  pictures  of  the  following  wild  relatives: 
fox,  wolf,  coyote,  jackal,  otocyon,  bay  cat,  cheetah,  fishing  cat,  jaguar, 
lynx,  lion,  manuel,  ocelot,  ounce,  panther,  puma,  rusty  cat,  serval,  tiger, 
wild  cat,  yaguarundi.  Consult  encyclopedias  and  natural  histories  to 
find  descriptions  of  the  appearance,  habits,  and  haunts  of  these  animals. 
Recall  the  work  already  done  on  protective  colors  of  the  great  cats.  Do 
any  other  of  these  animals  besides  those  noted  earlier  illustrate  the  laws  we 
there  found  ? 

Distribution. — Have  each  pupil  draw  an  outline  map  of  the  world  on  a 
large  sheet  of  paper  (12  by  24  inches),  or  else  use  the  printed  outline  maps. 
Indicate  by  initial  letter  (L,  lion,  Ly,  lynx,  etc.)  on  these  maps  the  habitats 
of  each  great  cat.  Thus  the  tiger  is  found  in  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  Siam, 
Borneo,  Sumatra,  Eastern  China,  Manchuria,  and  Eastern  Siberia.  In 
each  of  these  localities  put  a  T.  Similarly  mark  the  regions  inhabited  by  the 
other  great  cats.  A  brief  study  of  the  map  will  enable  you  to  discover  some 
interesting  facts.  Can  you  state  these  and  tell  what  you  learn  from  them  ? 

[NOTE. — The  material  of  this  chapter  is  graded  so  as  to  give  the  student-teacher  an 
idea  of  how  to  adopt  the  subject-matter  to  the  various  grades,  making  it  increasingly 
difficult  as  the  student  grows  in  ability.] 


BIRD-STUDY 

Bird  study  in  the  field  must  be  done  alone  or  by  pupils  in  very  small 
groups,  for  it  is  difficult  for  a  large  class  to  get  close  to  birds.  Go  and  sit 
down  quietly  in  some  locality  where  birds  are  abundant  and  watch  them  as 
they  come  near.  Fix  your  attention  on  one  bird  and  study  it  until,  with 
the  aid  of  the  attached  key,  you  can  .determine  what  it  is.  (Chapman's 
Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada  for  adult  pupils 
and  Reed's  Bird  Books  for  grade  pupils  will  be  found  invaluable  as  the  study 
progresses.)  Do  not  be  content  merely  to  know  the  bird's  name;  watch 
it  to  know  its  habits. 

Parts  of  bird. — Copy  on  the  opposite  page  from  Chapman's  Handbook 
of  the  Birds  the  outline  drawing  of  a  bird,  showing  the  location  of  the  areas 
where  distinguishing  colors  and  other  marked  characteristics  are  most 
likely  to  be  found.  Study  it  to  familiarize  yourself  with  these. 

Field  study. — Take  this  notebook  with  you  on  your  field  trips  and  while 
observing  an  unknown  bird  either  check  the  term  which  describes  the  char- 
acter or  fill  in  the  word  indicating  the  color  or  other  feature  in  so  far  as  you 
can  observe  such.  The  following  are  the  most  important  color  terms: 
olive,  rufous,  buff,  fuscous,  scarlet,  cardinal.  (See  Chapman's  Handbook, 
p.  38,  for  plate  showing  these  colors  and  others  that  are  already  familiar.) 

Date Locality1 Length  of  bird 

Bill:    Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:    Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:    Long   or   short;     square    at    end,    V-shaped,    round,    pointed.     General 

color Cross     bars     or     bands;      marked     by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:   Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.     Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:    Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.     Color 

Feet.    Webbed.     Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 

1  Such  as  woods,  borders  of  woods,  in  bushes,  open  fields,  swamps,  along  stream  or 
pond  margins,  roadsides,  garden,  orchard. 

67 


68  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

For  practice  fill  in  the  foregoing  details  while  studying  a  mounted 
specimen  of  a  flicker  in  the  school  museum.  Use  the  sheets  that  follow  for 
recording  field  observations. 

Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;    marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color .Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 


Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly. 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;  marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 


BIRD-STUDY  69 

Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye . Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;    marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird • Family 

Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;    marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feel:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 


70  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  .Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color. Cross  bars  or  bands;  marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird '. . . .  Family 

Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross   bars   or  bands;    marked   by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird , Family 


BIRD-STUDY  71 


Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

'Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;   marked  by 

spots where their  color 

s:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 


Date Locality Length  of  bird 

Bill:  Color Length Slender  or  short;  hooked;  bristles  at  base. 

Color:  Forehead Crown Crest 

Nape Back Rump Throat 

Breast Belly 

Eye Line  over  eye Lores 

Tail:  Long  or  short;  square  at  end,  V-shaped,  round,  pointed.  General 

color Cross  bars  or  bands;  marked  by 

spots where their  color 

Wings:  Long,  narrow;  wing  bars:  none,  one,  or  two.  Color 

Color  on  bend  of  wing Outer  primaries 

Legs:  Very  long,  long,  medium,  short.  Color 

Feet:  Webbed.  Color Toes:  long,  clawed. 

Name  of  bird Family 

Bird  record. — During  this  fall  (or  spring)  keep  a  record  of  the  birds  you 
see,  using  the  following  tabulation.     Number  o  is  filled  in  as  a  sample. 


l 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


W  co 


BIRD-STUDY 


73 


needed 


§ 

I 

-4-J 

d 


74  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Migration. — Data  such  as  have  been  accumulated  and  recorded  in  the 
preceding  table  will  give  a  concrete  idea  of  local  migration  phenomena. 
Migration,  however,  covers  a  wide  area.  Ask  each  student  in  the  class  to 
write  to  his  friends  in  North  America  asking  them  to  inform  him  when 
some  such  familiar  bird  as  the  robin  first  appears  in  the  spring  or  last 
appears  in  autumn.  Have  all  the  members  of  the  class  get  data  from 
friends  for  the  same  bird.  Have  these  data  reported  at  class  as  soon  as 
possible.  Thus  one  student  may  report  that  one  friend,  living  in  Chat- 
tanooga, Tennessee,  reports  robins  there  all  winter;  another,  living  in  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee,  reports  the  first  robin  seen  February  16.  Locate  Nash- 
ville on  the  map  on  the  following  page  and  beside  it  write  the  date.  Locate 
Chattanooga  on  the  map  and  mark  it  with  a  red  dot;  also  all  the  other 
places  from  which  reports  are  received  and  dates  when  the  robin  is  seen. 
This  should  give  a  graphic  representation  of  the  advancing  (or  in  autumn, 
retreating)  wave  of  migration. 

There  follow  maps  of  North  and  South  America.  Collect  the  necessary 
data  and  show  on  the  first  map,  by  shading,  in  what  region  the  bobolink 
nests;  by  cross-lines,  where  it  winters;  and  by  a  line  of  arrows,  its  migra- 
tion route.  On  the  other  maps  show  the  same  thing  for  each  of  the  following 
birds  (names  to  be  dictated  by  the  instructor) : 


BIRD-STUDY 


75 


FIG.  6 


76  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


FIG.  7 


BIRD-STUDY 


77 


FIG.  8 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


FIG.  9 


BIRD-STUDY  79 

Nesting  habits. — The  class  will  undertake  to  keep  close  watch  of  the 
nesting  habits  of  some  pair  of  birds.  Locate  a  convenient  nest  which  is 
within  easy  walking  distance  of  the  school  and  sufficiently  low  so  that  the 
activities  of  the  birds  are  readily  observed.  A  pair  of  opera  glasses  will 
help  in  this  work.  Assign  students  to  particular  days  and  hours  so  that  the 
procedure  may  be  under  constant  observation. 

Name  of  bird 

Location  of  nest  site  . 


Date  of  beginning  of  nest Date  of  completion 

Description  of  nest 


Date  first  egg  is  laid Second Third Fourth Fifth. 

Date  female  begins  incubation 

Does  male  also  sit  on  eggs  ? When  ? 

How  long  ? 

Date  first  young  hatch Second »  .  .   Third 

Additional  observations.  . 


Record  on  the  blanks  on  the  following  pages  one  day's  activities  while 
young  are  being  fed.  Begin  observation  early  enough  to  catch  the  first 
feeding  and  continue  until  it  is  discontinued  for  the  day.  Pupils  may 
work  at  the  job  of  observing  and  keeping  record  in  hour  shifts. 


8o  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

NAME  OF  BIRD  . .  DATE  .  . 


HOUR  OF  FEEDING 


MOTHER  OR  FATHER 
BIRD 


WHAT  WAS  FED  ? 


OTHER  CARE  GIVEN  NEST- 
LINGS OR  NEST 


BIRD-STUDY 


81 


HOUR  OF  FEEDING 


MOTHER  OR  FATHER 
BIRD 


WHAT  WAS  FED  ? 


OTHER  CARE  GIVEN  NEST- 
LINGS OR  NEST 


82 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


Food  of  birds. — Look  up  the  data  in  regard  to  the  food  of  the  following 
birds  and  fill  in  the  information  for  all  the  list  as  is  done  for  No.  i : 


BIRDS 

WEED    SEEDS 

GRAIN 

SMALL 
FRUITS 

INSECTS  AND 
THEIR  CLOSE 
ALLIES 

OTHER 
ANIMALS 

i.  Bob  white 
2.  Sparrow  hawk 

63% 

2% 

13% 

14% 

8% 

3.  Screech  owl 

4.  Bronze  grackle 

- 

5.  Meadow  lark 

6.  Crow 

7.  Che  wink 

8.  Song  sparrow 

9.  Chickadee 

10.  Kingbird 

ii.  Bluebird 

12.  Robin 

Beneficial  and  injurious  birds. — Find  the  facts  regarding  the  amount 
of  weed  seed  eaten  by  one  species  of  birds  in  a  single  state  and  enter  the 
data  on  the  opposite  page.  Find  the  estimate  of  the  total  insects  eaten 
in  one  state  and  enter  it.  Observe  the  English  sparrow  for  yourself  and 
try  to  make  up  your  mind,  on  the  basis  of  your  own  observation,  whether 
or  not  it  is  a  sufficiently  injurious  bird  in  your  region  to  warrant  its  exter- 
mination. Enter  the  facts  on  which  you  base  your  judgment.  Look  up 
the  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  English  sparrow  into  this  country 
and  its  subsequent  spread.  Record  the  facts. 

Are  the  following  birds  to  be  considered  beneficial  or  injurious:  bobo- 
link, yellow-billed  cuckoo,  Cooper's  hawk,  great  horned  owl  ? 

If  the  birds  are  man's  valuable  allies,  it  is  worth  while  planning  our 
homes,  school  yards,  and  public  parks  so  as  to  attract  them.  The  chief 
means  of  attracting  birds  are  to  provide  (a)  baths,  (b)  drinking  fountains, 
(c)  nest  boxes  and  nesting  materials,  (d)  nest  sites,  and  (e)  food. 


BIRD-STUDY  83 

Bath  and  drinking  fountain. — Copy  or  design  a  good  combination  bath 
and  drinking  fountain.  It  would  be  a  worth-while  project  to  undertake 
to  make  one  as  a  class  enterprise.  Before  undertaking  it  read  up  on  the 
essential  things  in  such  a  device  so  as  to  make  it  really  attractive  to  the 
birds. 

Nest  boxes. — What  is  the  essential  thing  in  a  wren  box?  The  purple 
martin  nest  should  be  located  on  a  pole  above  low  shrubbery,  near  a  pond. 
It  should  have  nest  sites  for  many  pairs,  and  these  should  be  away  from 
drafts.  It  must  have  several  entrances  so  that  if  sparrows  take  possession 
the  martins  can  get  in  to  drive  them  out.  Draw  on  the  opposite  page  the 
plan  for  such  a  nest. 

Food  and  shelter. — Birds  may  be  fed  out  of  the  hand  with  prepared 
food;  or  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs  may  be  grown  to  furnish  them  food.  If 
grown  in  a  tangle  the  thicket  will  afford  excellent  nest  sites.  What  are 
some  of  the  good  foods  to  use  in  attracting  birds  about  the  house  ?  List 
some  of  the  best  plants,  classifying  them  under  trees,  shrubs,  herbs,  to  put 
into  the  tangle  or  upon  the  lawn  to  afford  edible  fruits  to  birds.  Draw  a 
map  of  the  block  in  which  you  live,  locating  on  this  the  position  of  houses, 
trees,  shrubbery,  gardens,  etc.,  and  indicate  by  a  red-ink  dot  the  location 
of  each  bird  nest;  a  little  number  beside  the  dot  may  refer  to  the  margin 
and  show  the  name  of  the  bird  owner. 

Comparative  study  of  the  parts  of  birds. — Draw  from  specimens  in  the 
school  museum  the  heads  of  the  following  birds  to  show  bill  structure: 

The  head  of  the  cardinal.  What  is  the  food  of  the  bird  and  why  the  heavy 
beak?.. 


The  bill  is  really  a , 


Other  birds  with  the  same  type  of  bill  are 


84  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

The  head  of  a  hawk.    The  bill  is  used  for 

Other  birds  with  this  type  of  bill  are 


The  head  of  the  flicker.    The  bill  is  really  a 

and  its  tip  is like  a Look  up  a  sketch  of  the 

tongue  of  the  bird  (see  Chapman).    It  is  used 


The  head  of  the  woodcock.  The  food  is  obtained  by 

Why  are  the  eyes  set  so  far  back 

in  the  head  ?  > 

The  head  of  the  American  bittern.  The  bird  feeds,  on and  the 

bill  is  a Why  is  the  neck  so  long  ? 

:  i.  zzzzzzizziz ".'.. '. ... .... 

What  other  birds  have  similar  bills  ? . . 


The  nighthawk.    The  bird  captures  its  food 

So  the .' must  be  very 

What  other  birds  have  like  habits  ? . . 


BIRD-STUDY  85 

Birds'  feet. — Draw  the  foot  of  the  duck,  built  for 

Compare  the  foot  of  the  grebe.  Why  are  the  legs  placed  so  far  back? 

Draw  the  foot  of  the  hawk,  especially  fitted  for 

Draw  the  foot  of  the  gallinule,  coot,  or  rail.  What  other  birds  have  such 
feet  as  the  rail  ?  What  kinds  of  legs  have  they  as  a  rule  ?  Draw  the 
foot  of  a  chicken  or  turkey.  Examine  the  foot  of  a  turkey  or  of  a 
chicken  when  it  has  been  cut  off.  Is  it  closed  or  open  ?  When  you  pull 
on  the  tendons,  the  white  cords  at  the  cut,  what  happens  ?  In  the  living 
animal  muscles  work  these  tendons.  Would  it  require  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  bird  to  grasp  its  perch  or  to  let  go  ?  How  would  this  be  an  advantage  ? 

The  wing. — Draw  in  outline  one  of  the  main  wing  feathers,  a  wing 
primary,  from  the  wing  of  chicken  or  turkey.  It  consists  of  (i)  the  quill 
and  (2)  the  vane,  the  latter  made  up  of  (a)  the  shaft  and  (b)  the  web. 
Is  the  web  equally  wide  on  both  sides  of  the  shaft  ?  If  you  were  to  cut 
across  the  wing  primaries  as  they  lie  in  the  wing,  the  cut  of  the  shafts  might 

appear  something  like  this (Attach  lines  to  these  dots 

to  show  how  the  web  of  each  feather  would  lie.)  A  bird  flies  by  beating 
the  air  with  its  wings.  But  when  the  wing  has  arrived  at  the  end  of  the 
downstroke  it  must  carry  back  again  to  begin  the  next.  Why  does  not  the 
upstroke  undo  all  the  lifting  effect  of  the  downstroke?  Watch  birds  to 
see  if  the  downstroke  is  more  rapid  than  the  up. 

FIELD  KEY  TO  CHICAGO  BIRDS 

To  use  a  key  of  this  sort  when  you  are  trying  to  identify  a  bird  that 
you  see  in  the  field,  read  through  the  description  of  the  several  groups 
lettered  A-i,  A-2,  etc.  Select  the  one  that  fits  the  bird  under  observation, 
then  read  under  this  heading  the  characters  of  the  several  alternative 
groups  lettered  E,  EE,  etc.  Such  alternative  groups  always  stand  under 
each  other  in  line  at  the  same  distance  from  the  left-hand  margin  of  the 
page.  Continued  selection  narrows  down  the  choice  until  the  final  one 
leads  to  the  name  of  the  bird. 

The  several  major  groups  from  which  selection  is  to  be  made  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence  are  as  follows: 

A- 1.  Ducks  or  ducklike  birds  with  characteristic  throbbing  flight. 
A-2.  Birds  of  soaring  flight  usually  seen  on  the  wing:  gulls,  terns,  hawks, 

buzzards,  swallows,  swifts,  etc. 

A-3.  Birds  with  feathered  rosettes  around  the  eyes:   owls. 
A-4.  Birds  conspicuous  for  their  long  necks  and  long  legs:   herons,  rails, 

sandpipers. 
A-5.  The  woodpeckers. 


86  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

A-6.  The  flycatchers  that  watch  for  insects  from  a  perch  and  return  after 
securing  the  prey. 

A-7.  Birds,  not  in  the  foregoing  groups,  conspicuously  marked  with  blue. 

A-8.  Birds  conspicuously  marked  with  red. 

A-g.  Birds  conspicuously  marked  with  yellow. 
A- 10.  Birds  that  appear  chiefly  brown. 
A-II.  Birds  that  are  black  or  black  and  white. 
A-i2.  Birds  that  will  not  go  into  any  of  the  foregoing  groups. 

A- 1.  Ducks  or  ducklike  birds,  with  characteristic  throbbing 
flight 

E — Diving  rather  than  flying  when  startled  and  remain- 
ing under  the  water  for  some  considerable  time; 
almost  tailless. 

I — More  than  2  ft.  in  length  (as  large  as  a  goose)  Loon 

II — Less  than  2  ft.  in  length 

O — White  wing  patch  showing  when  wing  is 
flapped  in  flight;  under  parts  pure  white; 
head  usually  black  or  yellow,  or  black  and 
white  Horned  Grebe 

OO — No  wing  patch;   under  parts  ashy 

X— Bill  round,  short  Pied-billed  Grebe 

XX — Bill  flat,  upcurved  Ruddy  Duck 

EE — Flying  rather  than  diving  when  startled,  or,  if  the 
latter,  remaining  under  for  a  few  moments  only; 
with  tail.     Ducks  and  geese. 
I— Crested 

0 — Crest  sticking  up  like  a  pompadour;  a  white 
spot  on  it 

X — Neck  black  Hooded  Merganser 

XX — Neck  white  Bufflehead,  male 

OO — Crest  hanging  down  neck 
X — Breast  spotted 

Y— Chin  white  Wood  Duck 

YY — Chin  dark  Green-winged  Teal,  male 

XX — Breast  not  conspicuously  spotted 

Y — Head  black,  breast  brown,  streaked 

with  black  Red-breasted  Merganser,  male 

YY — Head  brown,  breast  whitish 

a — Crest    double;     double    white 

wing  patch  Red-breasted  Merganser,  female 

aa — Crest  single;   single  white  wing 

patch  American  Merganser,  female 

II — No  crest 

O — Tail  with  long  slender  feathers 

X — Head  dark,  no  white  spot  •        Pintail 


BIRD-STUDY 


XX — Head  light,  or,  if  dark,  with  a  white 

spot  on  each  side  Old  Squaw 

OO — Tail  without  long  slender  feathers 

X — Animal    all    over    uniform    black    or 
dusky,    except    possibly    some    white 
spots 
Y — No  white  spots  anywhere 

a — Unmottled;     underwings,    seen 

in  flight,  dark  American  Scoter 

aa — Mottled;    underwings,  seen  in 

flight,  light  Black  Duck 

YY — With  white  spots 

a — White    wing    bar,    male    with 

white  eyespot  White-winged  Scoter 

aa — No  white  wing  bar  but  two 
white  spots  on  each  side  of  head 
o — Forehead  low  Surf  Scoter 

oo — Forehead  high  Harlequin  Duck,  female 

XX — Animal  not  uniform  black  or  dusky  all 
over 

Y — Forward    parts   dark,   contrasting 
strongly  with  adjacent  light  parts 
a — Head  and  sometimes  neck  dark, 
contrasting  strongly  with  light 
neck  or  breast 
o — Back    light,  bill  broad  and 

spoonlike  Shoveller,  mate 

oo — Back  dark 

x — Bird    nearly  3  ft.    long. 

Flying  in  V-shaped  flocks  Canada  Goose 

xx — About    2   ft.   or   less   in 
length 

y — White  spots  on  head 
z — A  white  spot  be- 
hind eye  Bufflehead 
zz — A  white  spot  be- 
low the  eye                 Golden-eye,  male 
yy — No    white    spots    on 
head 

2 — Head   black,   feet 
red;   26  in.  long 

American  Merganser,  male 
zz — Head  brown,  feet 
yellow  or  orange; 
1 8  in.  long  Golden-eye,  female 


88 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


aa — Head,  neck,  and  breast  dark, 
contrasting   strongly   with   ad- 
jacent light  parts 
o — Back  light 

x — A  narrow  white  ring 
around  neck;  tail  feathers 
curled  up 

xx — No    narrow   white    ring 
on    neck;     tail    feathers 
straight 
y — Forehead     low,     bill 

long 

yy — Forehead    high,    bill 
short 
z — Head  black;  white 

spot  on  wing 
zz — Head  red;  no  white 

spot  on  wing 
oo — Back  dark,  chin  light,  belly 

light 

YY — Forward  parts  not  in  strong  con- 
trast to  adjacent  light  parts  but 
shading  into  lighter  belly;  animal 
variegated  or  spotted  (in  females 
listed  below  spots  not  seen  at  a 
distance) 

a — Animal  slaty  blue  with  several 
crescents  and  spots  on  head  and 
body 
aa — Animal  not  so  marked 

o — A  dark  comma  running  back 
from  eye 

x — Top  of  head  white 
xx — Top  of  head  chestnut 
oo — No    dark    comma    running 
back  from  eye 
x — Wing    with    large    blue 
patch  on  it 

y — Bill  broad  and  spoon- 
like 

yy — Bill   not    broad    and 
spoonlike 

z — Head  gray,  a  white 
crescent  in  front  of 
eve 


Mallard,  male 

Canvasback 

Scaup,  male 

Redhead 

Ring-necked  Duck 


Harlequin  Duck,  male 


Baldpate,  male 
Green-winged  Teal,  male 


Shoveller 


Blue-winged  Teal,  male 


BIRD-STUDY 


89 


zz — Head    and   under 
parts  a  bright  cin- 
namon Cinnamon  Teal,  male 
zzz — Head    and    wings 
dusky 
J— Throat  white 

Blue-winged  Teal,  female 
ft— Throat  dark 

Cinnamon  Teal,  female 
xx — Wing  without  large  blue 
patch  on  it 
y — Wing     patch     white 

bordered  with  black  Gadwall 

yy — Wing  patch  violet 
bordered  front  and 
back  with  white  Mallard,  female 

yyy — Wing  patch  green 

z — Large  white  patch 

in  front  of  it  Baldpate,  female 

zz — No  white  patch  on 

wing  Green-winged  Teal,  female 


A- 2.     Birds  of  soaring  flight  usually  seen  on  the  wing;  wings 
long  and  sharp-pointed 

E — Bill  hooked;  birds  (except  for  a  few)  considerably 
larger  than  a  robin;  this  group  includes  the  gulls, 
terns,  hawks,  and  buzzards 

I — Feet  webbed  and  extended  backward  in  flight, 
usually  seen  over  bodies  of  water,  flying  rather 
low  and  in  straight  lines 
0 — Pearl  gray  above,  white  or  light  below 
X — As  large  as  or  larger  than  a  crow 

Y — Top  of  head  black,  bill  coral  red, 
feet  black,  tail  forked,  male  crested 
YY — Head  white,  tail  square 

a — Bill  unmarked,  length  24  in. 
aa — Bill  with  dark,  encircling  band, 
lenth  i8|  in. 

NOTE. — Immature  birds,  of  ten 
seen  flying  with  the  old  ones,  are 

§much  darker;  tail,  of  mature 
herring  gull  has  the  buffy 
border.  The  ring-billed  gull 
has  a  wide  black  border. 


Caspian  Tern 

Herring  Gull 

Ring-billed  Gull 


90  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

XX — Nearly  one  and  one-half  times  as  large 
as  a  robin 
Y — All  of  head  and  throat  dark 

a — Bill  red,  under   parts  suffused 

with  pink  Franklin's  Gul 

aa — Bill  black,  under  parts  white  Bonaparte's  Gull 

YY — Top  of  head  black  (in  winter  crown 
white) 
a — Feet   and   bill   orange;     under 

parts  white  Forster's  Tern 

aa — Feet  and  bill  red;    breast  and 

belly  pale  gray  Common  Tern 

XXX — About  as  long  as  a  robin,  slender;  belly 

yellow,  feet  orange  Least  Tern 

OO— Bird  dark  all  over 

X — Body  black,  wings  dark,  small  Black  Tern 

XX — Body  and  wings  dark,  large 

Young  of  Herring  and  Ring-billed  Gulls  (see  p.  89) 
II — Feet  not  webbed,  held  up  close  to  the  body  in 
flight;   usually  seen  over  the  land  (except  fish 
•    hawk),  flying  at  a  considerable  height  and  in 
wide  sweeping  curves;  marsh  hawk  flies  low  and 
some  of  the  hawks  fly  in  straight  lines,  but  all 
are  usually  easily  recognized  as  hawks,  their 
flight  is  so  swift 
O — Head  without  feathers 

X — Red  head  Turkey  Buzzard 

XX — Black  head  Black  Vulture 

OO— Head  feathered 

X — Nearly  3  ft.  long 

Y — Head  white;  leg  not  feathered  clear 

down  to  toes  Bald  Eagle 

YY — Head  not  white;   leg  feathered  to 

toes  Golden  Eagle 

XX — 2  ft.  or  less  in  length 

Y — Tail  without  cross-bars  or  bands 
(tip  may  be  white)  (the  black  band 
on  red-tailed  hawk  does  not  show 
clearly  from  below) 
a — Under  parts  streaked 

Red-shouldered  Hawk,  immature 
aa — Under  parts  unstreaked 
o — A  band  across  the  belly 

Rough-legged  Hawk,  immature 


BIRD-STUDY 


Marsh  Hawk 


Goshawk,  male 


Fish  Hawk 


oo — No  band  across  the  belly 
x — Under    parts    white    or 
whitish 

y — Rump  white 
yy — Rump  not  white 

z — Head     and     back 
slate-colored,  under 
parts  gray 

zz — Head  white,   back 
brown,  under  parts 
white 
xx — Under  parts  dark 

y — No  white  spots  under- 
side of  wing 

Rough-legged  Hawk,  dark  variety 
yy — A  white  spot   under 
each  wing 

Night  Hawk  (not  a  true  hawk  but  some- 
times mistaken  for  one  when  flying) 
YY — Tail  with  cross-bars  or  bands 

a — A  single  black  band  near  end 
o — Back  barred;   10-11  in. 
oo — Back  unbarred;   21  in. 
aa — Several  cross-bars  or  bands 
o — Breast,  belly,  sides,  or  all  of 
them  cross-barred 
x — White  patch  at  base  of 
tail  in  sharp  contrast  to 
adjacent  dark  parts 
y — Basal     half     of     tail 

white;  perches  high 
yy — Only     rump     white; 

perches  low 

xx — No  white  patch  at  base 
of  tail 

y — Breast  with  big  cin- 
namon spot 
yy — Breast    without    cin- 
namon spot 
z — Wing   primaries 
without  bars 
i— Tail   with  two 

bars 

Broad-winged  Hawk 


Sparrow  Hawk 
Red-tailed  Hawk 


Rough-legged  Hawk 


Marsh  Hawk 


Swainson's  Hawk,  male 


92  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

tt — Tail  with  more  than  two 
bars;  belly  with  black  band 

Red-tailed  Hawk,  immature 
zz — Wing  primaries  with  bars;  tail 
more  than  two  bars 
I — Tail  square  in  flight.     Bird 

11-13  inches 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk 

It — Tail    rounded    in    flight; 
larger 

§ — Shoulder    and    breast 
red;   top  of  head  light, 

streaked 

Red-shouldered  Hawk 

§§ — Shoulder  and  breast 
not  red;  top  of  head 
dark,  unstreaked 

1.  Length  16  Cooper's  Hawk 

2.  Length  24  Goshawk 
oo — Breast,  belly,  sides  without  cross-bars 

x — Breast,  belly,  sides  all  streaked 
y — Wing  primaries  barred 

z — As    large    or    larger    than   a 
crow 
J — A  brown  spot   on  breast 

Swainson's  Hawk,  female 
\% — No  brown  spot  on  breast 
§ — Shoulder    yellow    buff 

Red-shouldered  Hawk,  immature 
§§ — Shoulder    not    yellow 

buff  Goshawk,  immature 

zz — Much   smaller   than   a  crow 

| — Tail  rounded  in  flight  Cooper's  Hawk 

JJ — Tail  square  in  flight 

§ — Buff  collar  about  neck          Pigeon  Hawk 
§§— No  buff  collar 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  immature 


BIRD-STUDY  93 

yy — Wing  primaries  unbarred 

z — White  at  base  of  tail 

$ — Basal   half    of   tail 

white  Broad-winged  Hawk 

|J — Only  rump  white  Marsh  Hawk 

zz — No   white   at   base   of 
tail 

t — Tail  with  three  to 
five  black  bars 

Broad-winged  Hawk,  immature 
J| — Tail    with    more 
black  bars 

Swainson's  Hawk,  immature 

xx — At   least    the   belly   unstreaked, 
white 

y — White  rump  Marsh  Hawk 

yy — Rump  not  white 

z— Head  light  Fish  Hawk 

zz — Head  dark 

Broad-winged  Hawk,  immature 

EE — Bill   not   hooked:     swallows,    swifts,    and   night- 
hawks 

I — A  white  spot  on  underside  of  dark  wing  Nighthawk 

II — No  white  spot  on  underwing 

O — Entire  bird  one  color,  no  conspicuous  marks; 
bird  black  or  very  dark 

X — Tail  somewhat  forked  Purple  Martin,  male 

XX — Tail  not  forked  but  tipped  with  bristles          Chimney  Swift 
OO — Bird  not  all  over  one  color 

X — Tail  deeply  forked  Barn  Swallow 

XX— Tail  not  deeply  forked 

Y— Throat  chestnut  Cliff  Swallow 

YY — Throat  gray  or  white 

a — Under  parts  all  white  Tree  Swallow 

aa — Under  parts  not  all  white 

o — A    black    band    across    the 

breast  Bank  Swallow 

oo — No  black  band  across  the 
breast 
x — Upper  parts  with  metallic 

reflections  Purple  Martin,  female 

xx — Upper  parts  without 

metallic  reflections      Rough-winged  Swallow 


94 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


A-3.  Bill  hooked;  feet  not  webbed,  held  up  to  the  body  in 
flight;  low-flying;  feathers  around  eyes  forming 
rosettes 

E — About  the  size  of  a  crow  or  somewhat  smaller 
I — With  distinct  ear  tufts  (see  also  short-eared  owl, 
below) 

O — A  white  patch  on  throat;  rare 
OO — No  white  patch  on  throat;  rare 
II — No  distinct  ear  tufts 

0 — Feathers  of  upper  parts  barred;    a  forest 
owl;   usual  cry  a  deep- voiced  "Who-whoo- 
whoo,  who-whoo,  to-whoo-ah" 
OO — Feathers  of  upper  parts  not  barred 

X — Upper   parts    speckled   in   black   and 

white;  monkey-faced 

XX — Upper  parts  not  speckled  with  white; 
ear  tufts  short,  scarcely  seen;  found  in 
swamps,  on  the  ground;  rare 
EE — Not  larger  than  a  robin 

I — With  ear  tufts;    call  a  melancholy,  tremulous 

whistle,  not  a  screech 
*  II — No  ear  tufts;  call  like  the  sound  of  filing  a  saw 


Great  Horned  Owl 
Long-eared  Owl 


Barred  Owl 


Barn  Owl 


Short-eared  Owl 


Screech  Owl 
Saw-whet  Owl 


A-4.  Birds  conspicuous  for  their  long  legs  and  long  necks 
(long  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  bird) ;  usually 
found  in  swamps  or  along  the  shores  of  streams,  ponds, 
and  lakes 

E — Bill  short  and  stout,  forehead  bare;  black  or  brown 
all  over 
I — Bill   white,    tipped   with   black;    toes   partly 

webbed  'Coot 

II— Bill  red 

O — Crown  red;  leg  just  below  body  red  Florida  Gallinule 

OO — Crown  blue  black;  leg  yellow  Purple  Gallinule 

EE — Bill  long;  forehead  feathered 

I — Space  between  eye  and  bill  bare;  neck  folded  in 
flight 
O— Crested 

X — Feathers  of  lower  neck  hanging  in  a 
brush 

Y — About  4  ft.  long  Great  Blue  Heron 

YY — About  2  ft.  long  Little  Blue  Heron 

XX — Feathers  of  lower   neck   not   hanging 
down 
Y — Back  green,  sides  of  throat  brown  Little  Green  Heron 


BIRD-STUDY 


95 


neck    brown 

Black-crowned  Night  Heron 


American  Bittern 


YY — Back    and    sides    of 
streaked  with  white 
OO— No  crest 

X — 28  in.;  yellow-brown  streaked;  a  black 

stripe  on  side  of  neck 
XX — 13  in.;   back  dark;   neck  chestnut,  un- 

streaked 

II — Space  between  eye  and  bill  feathered ;  neck  not 
folded  in  flight 

O — Wings  small,  rounded  (rails) 
X — About  the  size  of  a  robin 
Y — Bill  longer  than  head 
YY— Bill  shorter  than  head 
XX — About  the  size  of  a  sparrow 

Y — Yellow-brown 
YY — Black  or  very  dark 

OO — Wings     long     and     pointed     (sandpipers, 
plovers,  etc.) 
X — A  white  ring  around  the  neck 

Y — Two  black  bands  on  the  breast 
YY — One   black   band   on   the   breast; 
forehead  light;  dark  band  between 
eyes 
a — Very  pale,  color  of  light  sand; 

back  not  darker  than  belly 
aa — Darker,    color    of    wet    sand; 

back  darker  than  belly  Semi-palmated  Plover 

XX — No  white  ring  around  the  neck 

Y — Bill  short,  distinctly  shorter  than 
head 

a — All  over  color  of  light  sand  Piping  Plover 

aa — Not  of  uniform  color 

o — As  large  as  or  nearly  as  large 
as  a  robin 

x — General  color  olive  brown 

Pectoral  Sandpiper 
xx — General  color  olive  yel- 
low; throat,  breast,  belly 
of  male  black 

oo — Scarcely  larger  than  a  spar- 
row or  smaller 
x — Breast  spotted;  legs  yel- 
lowish 
xx — Breast    unspotted;    legs 

black  Semi-palmated  Sandpiper 


Least  Bittern 


Virginia  Rail 
Sora  Rail 

Yellow  Rail 
Black  Rail 


Kildeer  Plover 


Piping  Plover 


Golden  Plover 


Least  Sandpiper 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


American  Avocet 


Greater  Yellowlegs 


Western  Willet 


moist 

head 
breast 


YY  —  Bill  considerably  over  i  in. 

a  —  Bill  very  long,  over  2  in.  ;   con- 
siderably longer  than  head 
o  —  Bill  upturned  decidedly 
oo  —  Bill  not  upturned 
x  —  Legs  yellow 
xx  —  Legs  not  yellow 

y  —  Gray     birds,     under 

parts  white;  shores 
yy  —  Brown    birds,   under 
parts   brown; 
woods 

2  —  Back    and 
streaked; 
spotted 

zz  —  Back  and  head  not 
streaked;      breast 
brown,  plain 
aa  —  Bill  less  than  2  in. 

o  —  Seen  in  dry  fields  ;  12  in.;  legs 

yellow 
oo  —  Not  seen  in  dry  fields 

x  —  Legs  yellow 
xx  —  Legs  not  yellow 

y  —  Throat     unstreaked; 
unspotted 

2  —  Breast  rufous;    a 
dark   band    down 
side    of    neck 
female 
22  —  Breast    white, 

also  throat 

yy  —  Throat    streaked 
spotted 
2  —  Throat        rufous, 

spotted 

22  —  Throat  not  rufous 

|—  Throat    white, 

spotted,  as  also 

breast 

Jt—  Throat  striped 

§  —  Back     red; 

belly  black 

Red-backed.  Sandpiper 


Wilson's  Snipe 


Woodcock 


Upland  Plover 
Lesser  Yellowlegs 


n 


as 


or 


Wilson's  Phalarope 


Sanderling 


Sanderling 


Spotted  Sandpiper 


BIRD-STUDY  97 

§§ — Back  not  red  nor 
belly  black;    tail 

barred  Solitary  Sandpiper 

The  woodpeckers:  Birds  that  habitually  go  up  and 
down  the  tree  trunks,  hanging  to  the  bark  with  strong 
clawed  toes.  (Three  small  birds,  not  woodpeckers, 
have  habits  somewhat  like  them.  They  are  the  black 
and  white  creeping  warbler,  the  brown  creeper,  and  the 
nuthatch.  The  latter  has  a  plain  blue-gray  back,  the 
brown  creeper  a  brown-streaked  back  and  a  slender 
curved  bill.  The  back  and  wings  of  the  first  named 
are  streaked  with  black  and  white.  It  hunts  over. the 
twigs  and  smaller  branches  rather  than  on  the  trunks. 
All  three  are  small  birds,  not  larger  than  sparrows.) 
E — With  scarlet  crest;  bird  nearly  as  large  as  a  crow 

I — Wing  one-half  white  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker 

II — Wing  not  white  Pileated  Woodpecker 

EE— With  no  crest ,  though  top  of  head  or  nape  may  be  red 
I — Wings  with  a  single  broad  white  band;  head  of 

male  entirely  red  Red-headed  Woodpecker 

II — Wings  marked  with  numerous  cross-bars  or  spots 
0 — Under  parts  spotted,  barred,  or  streaked 
with  black 
X — Back  golden  brown,  black  crescent  on 

breast,  underwings  yellow,  rump  white  Flicker 

XX — Back  entirely  black;   male  with  yellow 

crown  Arctic  Three-toed  Woodpecker 

XXX— Back  black  and  white 

Y — Breast  with  broad  black  band,  nape 

red  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker,  female 

YY — Breast    white,    male    with   yellow 

crown  American  Three-toed  Woodpecker 

OO — Under  parts  plain 

X — Back  with  white  streak  down  middle; 
wings  barred  black  and  white 

Y — About  6  in.  long  (size  of  sparrow)      Downy  Woodpecker 
YY — About  10  in.  long  (size  of  robin)  Hairy  Woodpecker 

XX — Back  spotted  or  cross-barred  with  black 
and  white,  not  streaked 
Y — Back  of  head  red;  top  also  in  male; 

male  red-bellied  Red-bellied  Woodpecker 

YY— Top  of  head  and  throat  red;  belly 

yellow  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker,  male 


98  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

A-6.  The  flycatchers:  Birds  with  bill  hooked  at  the  tip,  with 
bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill;  best  known  by  their 
habits.  The  flycatcher  sits  on  some  vantage  point  to 
watch  for  insects;  spying  one  it  flies  out  to  get  it  and 
then  flies  back  to  the  same  or  nearby  perch  to  await  the 
next.  Mostly  small  birds,  smaller  than  robin  and 
many  smaller  than  a  sparrow 
E — Belly  bright  sulphur  yellow 

I — Crested;  9  in.  Crested  Flycatcher 

II — No  crest;   5^  in.  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher 

EE — Belly  not  bright  yellow,  may  be  washed  with  pale 
yellow 

I — Tail  black,  conspicuously  tipped  with  white  Kingbird 

II— Tail  without  white 

O — Upper  parts  very  dark,  wings  much  longer 
than  tail 
X — A  tuft  of  fluffy  yellow- white  feathers  on 

each  flank  Olive-sided  Flycatcher 

XX — No  tuft  of  feathers  on  flank  Wood  Pewee 

OO — Upper  parts  not  very  dark;  wings  scarcely 
longer  than  tail 
X — Bill  all  black;  wing  bars  indistinct;  tail 

twitches;  pure  white  on  under  parts  Phoebe 

XX — Bill  not  all  black;   wing  bars  distinct; 
under  parts  yellowish 
Y — Lower     mandible     yellow;      says 

"chebec"  constantly  Least  Flycatcher 

YY — Lower  mandible  white  or  flesh  color 
a — Upper  parts  brown 

o — Wing  bars  yellow- white  Triall's  Flycatcher 

oo — Wing  bars  brown-ashy  Alder  Flycatcher 

aa — Upper  parts  olive  green;    wing 

bars  very  conspicuous  Acadian  Flycatcher 

A-;.     Birds  with  blue  conspicuous  in  their  coloring  (in  some 
the  color  is  gray-blue) 
E — With  crest,  as  large  as  robin,  conspicuously  blue, 

black,  and  white  Blue  Jay 

EE — Without  crest 

I — Almost  entire  bird  blue 

0 — Indigo  blue,  wings  and  tail  dark  Indigo  Bunting,  male 

OO— Blue-black,  shoulders  chestnut  Blue  Grosbeak,  male 

II — Only  parts  of  bird  blue 
O— Back  blue 
X— Breast  red 

Y — Broad  white  line  over  eye  Red-breasted  Nuthatch 


BIRD-STUDY  99 

YY — No  line  over  eye  Bluebird 

XX — Breast  white 

Y— Throat  black  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler 

YY— Throat  white 

a — Blue  band  across  throat  Cerulean  Warbler 

aa — No  band  on  the  throat 

o — With  white  wing  bars    White-breasted  Nuthatch 
oo — No  wing  bars  Blue-gray  Gnat  Catcher 

XXX — Breast  yellow,  with  reddish  band  Parula  Warbler 

OO— Head  blue,  belly  yellow 

X — White  eye  ring;  breast  unmarked         Connecticut  Warbler 
XX — No  eye  ring;  breast  with  black  patch      Mourning  Warbler 
OOO — Head  blue,  belly  and  ears  white  Blue-headed  Vireo 

A-8.     Birds  conspicuously  marked  with  red 
E — Bird  red  all  over 
I — Body  color  bright 

O — Color  cardinal,  except  for  smudge  of  black 

about  base  of  bill  Cardinal 

00 — Color  rose  red  Summer  Tanager 

II — Body  simply  suffused  with  red  over  another 
color 

O — Mandibles  of  bill  crossed  Crossbill 

OO — Mandibles  not  crossed 

X — With  white  wing  bars  Pine  Grosbeak 

XX — Without  white  wing  bars  Purple  Finch 

EE — Bird  red  in  part  only 
I — Body  red 

O — Wings  and  tail  black  Scarlet  Tanager 

•   OO — Head,  wings,  and  tail  black  Orchard  Oriole 

II— Body  not  all  red 
0— Breast  red 

X— Back  blue  Bluebird 

XX — Back  yellow,  head  blue,  rump  red  Painted  Bunting 

XXX — Back  and  head  black  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak 

XXXX— Back  brown 

Y — 10  in.  Robin 

YY — 5 1  in.,  crown,  throat,  sides  chestnut 

Bay-breasted  Warbler 
OO— Sides  red 

X — Head  and  back  black  Towhee 

XX — Crown  yellow  Chestnut-sided  Warbler 

OOO — Red  patches  on  wings 

X — Bird  otherwise  black  all  over  Red-winged  Blackbird 

XX — Red  (orange)  also  on  outer  tail  feathers; 

upper  parts  black  Redstart 


ioo  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

OOOO — Red  on  throat,  bird  tiny  Ruby-throated  Humming  Bird 

OOOOO — Red  on  crown,  only  showing  when  crown 

feathers  are  erected  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet 

A-9.     Birds  conspicuously  marked  with  yellow 
E— Head  aU  yellow 

I— Most  of  bird  black  Yellow-headed  Blackbird 

II — Most  of  bird  yellow,  possibly  greenish  yellow 

O — Under  parts  streaked  Yellow  Warbler 

OO — Under  parts  not  streaked  Prothonotary  Warbler 

EE— Head  not  all  yellow 
I — Under  parts  yellow 

O — Under   parts   unmarked   with   streaks   or 
blotches 
X— Whole  head  dark 

Y — Head  and  back  black;   the  yellow, 

orange-yellow  Baltimore  Oriole 

YY — Head  slate-colored 

a — White  eye  ring  Connecticut  Warbler 

aa — No  eye  ring,  throat  black  Mourning  Warbler 

XX — Head  not  wholly  dark 

Y — Head  marked  with  black 

a — Throat  black  also  Hooded  Warbler 

aa — Throat  not  black 

o — Wings  and  tail  black,  marked 
with  white 
x — Crown  black,  no  yellow 

over  eye  American  Goldfinch 

xx — Crown  yellow,  yellow  line 

over  eye  Blackburnian  Warbler,  female 

oo — Neither  wings  nor  tail  black 
x — Crown  black 

y — Crown  only  black  spot      Wilson's  Warbler 
yy — Other   black   besides 
crown 

z — Black    line    down 
side  of  neck;   yel- 
low line  over  eye    Kentucky  Warbler 
zz — No  black  on  neck; 
white  line  over  eye 

Yellow-breasted  Chat 
xx — Crown  not  black,  cheeks 

black  Maryland  Yellowthroat 

YY — Head  not  marked  with  black 
a — With  two  wing  bars 

o — Green-yellow  patch  middle 

of  back  Parula  Warbler,  female 


BIRD-STUDY 


Pine  Warbler 


Bell's  Vireo 


oo — No  green-yellow  patch  mid- 
dle of  back 
x — White  spots  outer  edges 

of  tail  Blue-winged  Warbler 

xx — No  white  spots  on  tail 
y — No  eye  ring 
yy — With  eye  ring 
z — Eye  ring  white 
zz — Eye  ring  yellow 
J— Throat    and 
breast     bright 
yellow,     rump 

gray  Yellow-throated  Vireo 

It— Throat  and 
breast  green- 
ish yellow; 
rump  olive 
green 

a — Without  wing  bars 
o — No  spots  on  tail 

x — A  white    line  over    the 

eye 

xx — No  line  over  eye 
oo — White  spots  on  outer  tips  of 

tail  Hooded  Warbler,  female 

OO — Under  parts  marked  with  spots  or  streaks 
X — Whole  throat  black,  crown  black  and 

sides  of  neck  Hooded  Warbler,  male 

XX — Throat  or  breast  marked  by  a  single 
large  black  spot  or  blotch 
Y — Spot  crescentic,  bird  as  large  as  a 

robin 

YY — Spot  a  blotch,  bird  smaller  than  a 
robin 

a — In  addition  a  black  comma  run- 
ning from  bill  back  under  eye; 
horns 
aa — A  yellow  line  running  back  from 

bill  past  eye 

XXX — Throat  or  breast  yellow  marked  by  a 
necklace  of  black  spots 
Y — With  wing  bars  and  a  yellow  spot  on 

wing 

YY — No  wing  bars,  no  yellow  spot  on  the 
wings 


White-eyed  Vireo 


Philadelphia  Vireo 
Nashville  Warbler 


Meadow  Lark 


Horned  Lark 


Dickcissel 


Magnolia  Warbler 


Canadian  Warbler 


FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


and 
Blackburnian  Warbler 


Yellow  Warbler 


XXXX — Throat  and  breast  yellow  crossed  by 
chestnut  band  which  continues  down 
each  side  Chestnut-sided  Warbler 

XXXXX — Throat  and  breast  yellow,  marked  by 
dots  or  streaks  of  darker  color 
Y — Crown  yellow  or  orange 

a — Back   black,    head    black 

orange 
aa — Back  not  black 

o — Back   greenish   yellow, 

streaked 
oo — Back  yellow,  streaked 

Bobolink  (rice-bird  plumage) 
YY — Crown  dark 

a — White  patch  or  bars  on  wing 
o — White  patch  on  wing,  ears 

chestnut 
oo — Two  wing  bars 

x — Back  greenish  with  chest- 
nut spots 
xx — Back  greenish  yellow,  no 

spots 
aa — No  white  patch  or  bars  on  the 

wings 

II — Under  parts  not  yellow,  yellow  present  only  in 
spots  or  patches 

O — Nape  yellow,  wings  and  tail  black 
00 — Nape  not  yellow 

X — Forehead  or  crown  yellow 

Y— Wings  black 
YY— Wings  not  black 

a — Shoulders  yellow 
o — Rump  also  yellow 
oo — Rump  not  yellow 
aa — Shoulders  not  yellow 

o — Throat  black,  cheeks  yellow 

Golden-cheeked  Warbler 
oo — Throat  not  black 

x — Sides    chestnut,    cheeks 

white  Chestnut-sided  Warbler 

xx — Sides  not  chestnut,  crown 
patch  bordered  by  black 

Golden-crowned  Kinglet 
XX — Forehead  and  crown  not  yellow,  throat 
black 


Cape  May  Warbler 


Prairie  Warbler 


Pine  Warbler 


Palm  Warbler 


Bobolink 


Evening  Grosbeak 


Myrtle  Warbler 
Golden-winged  Warbler 


BIRD-STUDY  103 

Y— Cheeks  yellow  Black-throated  Green  Warbler 

YY — Cheeks  not  yellow,  orange-yellow 

on  wings  and  tail  American  Redstart 

A- 10.  Birds  that  appear  chiefly  brown 
E — Brown  all  over 

I — Seal  brown  all  over,  no  markings  Cowbird,  female 

II — Rusty  brown  all  over,  yellow  eye  Rusty  Blackbird,  female 

EE — Not  all-over  brown 

I — Upper  parts  brown  and  unstreaked,  unspotted 

0 — Crested  Cedar  Waxwing 

OO — Uncrested;  under  parts  spotted  or  streaked 

X — With  wing  bars;  larger  than  robin  Brown  Thrasher 

XX — Without  wing  bars 

Y — Larger  than  a  robin 

a — Bill  yellow  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 

aa— Bill  black  Black-billed  Cuckoo 

YY — Smaller  than  a  robin 

a — Tail  rufous,  brighter  than  back          Hermit  Thrush 
aa — Tail  not  brighter  than  back 
o — Crown  orange  bordered  by 

black  Ovenbird 

oo — Crown  not  orange 

x — Back  of  head  much 
lighter  than  back;  spots 
on  breast  round,  large  Wood  Thrush 

xx — Back  of  head  not  lighter 
than  back 

y — White  line  over  eye 
extending  back  of  eye 
z — Throat  streaked  Water  Thrush 

zz — T  hroat       not 

streaked         Louisiana  Water  Thrush 
yy — Line,  if  any,  over  eye 
not  extending  back  of 
eye 

z — Upper   parts   cin- 
namon brown,  no 

eye  ring         Veery  or  Wilson's  Thrush 
zz — Upper  parts  olive 
J — Eye  ring  white; 

lores  gray      Gray-cheeked  Thrush 
It — Eye  ring  cream 
buff,    as    also 
lores  Olive-backed  Thrush 


104  A  FIELD  GUIDE  .IN  NATURE-STUDY 

II — Upper  parts  brown  but  streaked  or  spotted,  at 
least  tail  and  wings 

0 — Bill  slender;   tail  either  cocked  up  or  with 
stiff,  bristle-tipped  feathers 
X — Seen  on  tree  trunks,  running  up  and 

down  clinging  to  bark  Brown  Creeper 

XX — Not  with  the  foregoing  habits 

Y — No  line  over  the  eye  House  Wren 

YY — With  a  line  over  the  eye 

a — Tail  tipped  with  grayish  white  Bewick's  Wren 

aa — Tail  not  tipped  with  white 
o — Back  streaked  with  white 

x — Crown  streaked       Short-billed  Marsh  Wren 
xx — Crown  not  streaked  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren 
oo — Back  not  streaked  with  white 

x — Belly  heavily  barred  Winter  Wren 

xx — Belly  unbarred  Carolina  Wren 

OO— Bill  short,  mostly  stout;  tail  neither  cocked 
up  nor  with  stiff  bristly  tip 
X — Birds  nearly  as  large  or  larger  than  a 
robin 

Y — With  conspicuous  bristles  around 
base  of  bill;  bill  very  small;  mouth 
very  large,  its  gape  an  inch  or  two 
a — White  spot  on  wing  Nighthawk 

aa — No  white  spot  on  wing     . 

o — Slightly  smaller  than  robin  Whippoorwill 

oo — Considerably  larger  than  a 
robin;  the  song  like  that  of 
whippoorwill  but  with  an 
added  syllable;  song  more 
slowly  given  Chuck-will's- Widow 

YY — No  bristles  around  bill;   bill  large 
and  stout;    henlike  in  form,  rising 
from  ground  with  a  loud  whirr 
a — 10  in.  long;  throat  and  line  over 

eye  white  or  light  Bobwhite 

aa — 1 8  in.  long  or  nearly  so,  no  line 
over  eye 

o — Breast  and  belly  white,  indis- 
tinctly barred;  sides  plainly 
barred  Ruffled  Grouse 

oo — Breast,  belly,  and  sides  all 

evenly  barred  Prairie  Chicken 


BIRD-STUDY  105 

XX — Birds  smaller  than  robin,  not  rising  with 
whirr;  sparrows  and  finches 
Y — A  cream  buff  band  across  a  white 

breast  Lincoln's  Sparrow 

YY — No  cream  buff  band  on  breast 

a — Crown  olive  green  .    Henslow's  Sparrow 

aa — Crown  not  olive  green 

o — Crown  striped  (not  streaked) 
with  white 
x — Throat  with  white  spot 

under  chin  White-throated  Sparrow 

xx — Throat    without     white 

spot 

y — Crown  and  face  striped 
brown  and  white;  outer 
tail  feathers  white  Lark  Sparrow 

yy— Crown  striped  black 

and  white  White-crowned  Sparrow 

oo — Crown    black    or    blackish, 
possibly  faintly  striped 
x — Throat  black 

y — Broad  white  line  from 

bill  back  over  eye  Lapland  Longspur 

yy — No  white  line  over  eye        Harris'  Sparrow 
xx — Throat  not  black 

y — Breast  black   Chestnut-collared  Longspur 
yy — Breast  not  black 

z — Orange  mark  be- 
fore eye;   bend  of 

wing  yellow          Grasshopper  Sparrow 
zz — No    mark    before 
eye;  bend  of  wing 

not  yellow  Leconte's  Sparrow 

ooo — Crown  not  black  or  striped 
x— Throat  black 

y — Crown  red,  male  with 

rosy  breast  Redpoll 

yy — Crown  gray  English  Sparrow 

xx — Throat  not  black 

y — Under      parts      not 
streaked 
z — Wing    bar    black, 

back  very  dark  Swamp  Sparrow 

zz — Wing  bars  white  or 
gray 


io6 


A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 


J — Crown  cream  buff,  a  dark 
band  each  side 

It — Crown  brown 

I1 — Forehead  black,  bill  black 

§§ — Forehead  not  black 

i — Black  spot  middle  of 

breast 
2 — No    spot   on   breast, 

bill  pink-brown 
yy — Under  parts  streaked 

z — Outer  tail  feathers  conspicuously 

white 

zz — Outer    tail    feathers    not    con- 
spicuously white 
J — Color     bright      red-brown 
above,     spots    below,    the 
same 

Jt — Color  not  bright  red-brown 

§ — Spots    on    breast    tend 

to      run      together      to 

make  one  large  one  at 

center 

§§ — Spots   distinct,    no    cen- 
tral large  one 
i — Conspicuous  white 
wing   bars,    crown 
streaked 

2 — No  conspicuous  white 
wing  bars,  crown  un- 
streaked 

m — Breast  and  belly 
heavily  streaked 
in  black 

mm — Breast  and  belly 
unstreaked,  sides 
streaked 

n — Crown  gray 
bordered  with 
black 

nn — Crown  buff 
bordered  with 
black 


Grasshopper  Sparrow 
Chipping  Sparrow 

Tree  Sparrow 
Field  Sparrow 

Vesper  Sparrow 

Fox  Sparrow 

Song  Sparrow 

Pine  Finch 


Savannah  Sparrow 


Grasshopper  Sparrow 
Leconte's  Sparrow 


BIRD-STUDY 


107 


Raven 


Crow 


Purple  Grackle 
Bronze  Grackle 

male 


A-n.  Birds  that  are  conspicuously  black  or  black  and  white 
E — Black  the  dominant  color 
I — Black  all  over 

0 — Large  birds  19  in.  or  more;    bristles  over 
nostrils 
X — Long  pointed  feathers  on  throat ;  nearly 

2ft. 

XX — Short,    rounded    feathers    on    throat; 

19  in. 
OO — Smaller  birds;  no  bristles  over  nostrils 

X — With  bronze  purple  metallic  reflections 
on  head,  back,  and  wings;  tail  taper- 
pointed 

Y — Iridescent  bars  on  back  feathers 
YY — No  bars  on  back  feathers 
XX — With  uniform  glossy  blue-black  plum- 
age;  tail  square  Rusty  Blackbird 
II — Not  black  all  over 

O— Head  and  neck  seal  brown  Cowbird 

OO — Head   and   neck   rusty  brown,   bird   gray 

below  Rusty  Blackbird,  female 

EE — Black  not  the  dominant  color 
I — Black  and  white  chiefly 

O — Black  and  white  streaked 
X — Crown   streaked;     a 

trunk  and  branches 
XX — Crown  solid  black 
Y — Back  gray 

a — Wings  and  tail  black 

through  eye 

aa — Black  cap  and  chin 
YY— Back  blue,  throat  black 
II — Black  and  yellow 

O — Head  black  except  cheeks,  which  are  yellow 

Golden-cheeked  Warbler 
OO — Head  yellow,  throat  and  breast  black 

Black-throated  Green  Warbler 

A-i2.  Birds  not  included  in  the  foregoing  groups 

E — Birds  nearly  as  large  as  or  larger  than  robin 

I — All-over  slaty  gray;  a  black  crown  (call  a  cat- 
like meow,  song  variable)  Catbird 
II — A  blue  gray  and  white  bird  with  large  head, 
throat   white;     seen    along   streams   or   pond 
margins;  call  a  rattling  roll                                         Belted  Kingfisher 


creeper   on   tree 

Black  and  White  Creeping  Warbler 
Blackpoll  Warbler 


black  bar 

Shrike 

Chickadee 

Black-throated  Blue  Warbler 


io8  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

III — Slender,  dovelike  bird,  gray  in  color,  call  a  soft 

coo  Mourning  Dove 

EE — Birds  no  larger  than  a  sparrow 
I — Upper  parts  olive  green 

O — White  and  black  line  over  eye  Red-eyed  Vireo 

OO — No  line  over  eye 

X — No  wing  bars  Warbling  Vireo 

XX — With  wing  bars  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet 

II — Upper  parts  not  olive  green,  but  slaty;  breast 
slaty,  belly  white,  bill  horn  color;  outer  tail 
feathers  white  Junco 


SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS 


Planting. — Plant  in  trays  in  the  schoolroom  three  of  each  of  Jhe  follow- 
ing seeds,  first  cracking  the  pine  seeds  and  chipping  the  castor  beans: 
barley,  castor  bean  (six  of  these),  corn,  nasturtium,  oats,  pea,  pine,  pump- 
kin, radish,  sunflower.  Plant  at  a  depth  about  equal  to  the  greatest  diam- 
eter of  the  seed.  Firm  the  soil  over  the  seeds  after  planting.  Mark  the 
position  of  each  kind  so  that  you  will  know  what  is  coming  up  when  it 
germinates. 

Seedlings. — Rule  the  opposite  pages  after  the  manner  of  the  sample 
shown  below,  and  keep  record  on  them  of  the  events  during  growth: 


PLANT 

DATE  OF 
APPEARANCE 

PULL  UP  ONE 
PLANT   OF  EACH 
WHEN   IT   FIRST 
APPEARS  AND 
MAKE  A  SKETCH 

SKETCH  WHAT 
SHOWS   ABOVE 
GROUND    WHEN 
FIRST    LEAVES 
SHOW 

SKETCH    A  DAY 
OR   TWO   LATER 

Barley 

Castor 
bean, 
etc. 

109 


no  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

The  young  plants. — The  problems  of  the  young  plants  are  (i)  if  the 
seed  is  on  the  surface  to  get  into  the  ground;  (2)  if  the  seed  is  underground 
to  get  its  stem  and  leaves  out  to  the  air;  (3)  to  break  out  of  its  seed  coats 
and  get  rid  of  them. 

Getting  out  of  the  ground. — Review  your  sketches  above  and  answer 
the  following:  Which  of  these  little  plants  have  the  same  method  of  getting 
out  of  the  'soil  ?  What  mechanical  device  does  the  corn  use  in  getting  out  ? 
Why  does  not  the  bean  come  up  in  the  same  way  ?  Can  you  see  any  prob- 
able reason  for  the  fact  that  the  bean  brings  up  its  cotyledons  while  the 
pea  does  not  ? 

1.  Stick  a  long,  sharp  straw  vertically  into  the  top  of  the  part  of  the 
bean  plant  that  first  appears.     Fasten  a  piece  of  glass  immediately  over 
the  upper  end  of  the  straw.     With  a  dot  of  ink  mark  on  the  glass  the  posi- 
tion of  this  end.     Do  this  every  hour  or  two  for  a  whole  day.     How  is  this 
part  of  the  plant  moving  ? 

2.  Plant  about  twenty-five  beans  in  a  space  4  by  8  inches  and  lay  a 
brick  over  them.     Can  they  lift  the  brick  as  they  germinate  ?    Devise  or 
find  an  experiment  (describe  it  here  and  record  the  results)  to  show  the 
upthrust  of  the  growing  tip  of  the  corn  plant  that  first  appears,  expressed 
in  grams  or  ounces. 

3.  Measure  the  volume  of  five  dry  lima  beans.     Soak  them  overnight 
and  again  measure  their  volume.     Find  the  volume  of  the  water  they  have 
absorbed.     How  much  have  they  increased  in  volume  ? 

4.  Fill  a  narrow-mouthed  bottle  with  dry  peas  and  pour  in  water  to 
fill  it  completely.     Put  in  a  cork  and  fasten  it  with  wire  or  strong  string. 
Let  it  stand  for  a  day  or  two.     What  happens  and  why  ? 

5.  Might  such  expansive  power  be  of  service  to  the  plant  in  break- 
ing out  of  the  soil?    Devise  or  look  up  an  experiment  to  measure  this 
expansive  force  of  a  seed  in  grams  or  ounces.     Try  it.     Describe  the 
apparatus   and   results.    Is  its  force  great  enough  to  be  of  any  real 
use? 

6.  Penetration  of  roots. — Scatter  some  radish  and  sunflower  seeds  on  the 
surface  of  the  moist  earth  in  a  flowerpot.     Cover  with  a  piece  of  glass  and 
watch  as  they  germinate.     Draw  a  radish  seedling  to  show  the  root  hairs. 
Draw  the  sunflower  to  show  the  position  assumed  in  trying  to  get  the  root 
tip  into  the  soil.     Pick  up  a  radish  seedling  the  root  of  which  is  well  covered 
with  root  hairs.     What  comes  with  it?    Can  you  see  how  this  helps  the 
plant  to  get  into  the  soil  ?    Did  you  find  root  hairs  on  root  tips  of  radish 
plants  growing  in  the  soil?    Read  up  the  function  of  the  root  hairs  and 
record  it  here.     Why  must  one  be  careful  to  take  up  considerable  soil  when 
transplanting  ? 


SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS  in 

The  parts  of  the  seedling. — Root  up  a  bean  plant  on  which  the  char- 
acteristic bean  leaves  begin  to  appear  plainly  and  sketch  it,  labeling  the 
following  parts:  (a)  cotyledons,  (5)  plumule,  now  expanding  into  what? 

(c)  stem,  (d)  taproot,  (e)  secondary  roots. 

Soak  several  lima  beans  overnight.  Open  one,  remove  one  cotyledon, 
and  make  a  diagram  to  show  (a)  seed  coat,  (b)  micropyle,  (c)  chalaza, 

(d)  hilum,  (e)  cotyledon,  (/)  hypocotyl  (how  is  it  related  to  the  micropyle  ?), 
(g)  plumule.     What  constitutes  the  embryo  ? 

Study  the  pine  seed,  the  castor  bean,  soaked  kernels  of  corn,  pumpkin, 
and  pea;  diagram  each  (enlarged)  to  show  the  parts.  There  are  two  seed 
coats  present  in  some  of  these  (testa  and  tegmen).  The  material  packed 
around  the  embryo  in  the  corn  is  called  " endosperm."  Keep  in  mind  what 
you  have  seen  in  the  growing  seedlings  as  you  try  to  interpret  what  you  see 
in  the  seed.  How  does  the  sunflower  plantlet  get  rid  of  its  seed  coats? 
Describe  the  method  here.  See  and  sketch  the  special  device  of  the  pump- 
kin plant  for  tearing  off  the  seed  coats. 

7.  Plant  food  in  seed. — Put  a  little  starch  into  a  test  tube,  fill  the  latter 
one-quarter  full  of  water  and  shake  it.     Add  a  drop  of  chloride  of  zinc 
solution;  note  the  color.     This  is  a  characteristic  test  for  starch.     Cut  the 
coat  from  a  dry  corn  kernel  and  scrape,  testing  the  scrapings  with  iodine 
in  the  same  way.     State  your  conclusion. 

8.  Take  the  "meat"  out  of  a  Brazil  nut,  cut  it  in  half,  stick  one-half  on 
a  knife  blade  or  hatpin  and  light  the  cut  surface.     How  long  will  it  burn  ? 
Lay  the  other  half,  cut  face  down,  on  a  piece  of  paper.     These  experiments 
show  what  ?     Put  a  pea  on  the  end  of  a  hatpin  and  hold  in  a  flame  to  burn 
it.     Notice  the  odor.     It  smells  like  what  ? 

9.  As  soon  as  bean  plants  are  up  far  enough  cut  one  cotyledon  from  one, 
two  from  the  second,  and  leave  the  third  with  both  cotyledons  on.     Keep  a 
record  of  the  rate  of  growth.     Thus: 

At  the  end  of  ten  days  No.  i  is inches  high  and  its  largest 

leaf  is inches  long.  No.  2  is inches  high  and  its 

largest  leaf  is long.  No.  3  is inches  high  and  its 

largest  leaf  is. long. 

From  these  last  experiments  what  do  you  conclude?  State  your 
conclusions.  What  use  does  man  make  of  the  facts  you  have  just 
stated  ? 

Read  up  on  the  structure  of  a  grain  of  wheat  and  diagram  it  here  to 
show  where  the  chief  food  substances  are  located  in  the  grain.  Do  the 
same  for  a  kernel  of  corn. 

The  process  of  food  manufacture  in  the  plant,  after  the  supply  stored 
in  the  seed  is  exhausted,  is  made  plain  by  the  following  experiments : 


H2  A  FIELD  GUID*E  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

10.  Fix  a  cork  to  the  neck  of  a  long-necked  bottle  or  flask.     Cut  it  in 
half  and  file  out  a  groove  in  each  half,  so  as  to  form  a  hole  that  will  receive 
the  stem  of  a  plant.     Fill  the  flask  nearly  full  of  water.     Root  out  a  nastur- 
tium plant  or  a  small  geranium  with  several  leaves;  wash  off  the  soil  from 
the  roots  and  set  it  in  the  flask,  the  stem  held  by  the  cork,  the  roots  in  the 
water.     A  twig  of  cottonwood  or  other  tree  may  serve  in  place  of  the  small 
plant.     Put  it  into  the  water  immediately  when  it  is  cut  off  the  tree.     See 
that  the  cork  fits  tightly  and  that  water  cannot  escape  where  the  plant  stem 
emerges  from  the  cork.     Mark  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  neck  of  the 
flask.    Let  it  stand  for  several  days  and  mark  again.     Measure  the  volume 
of  water  that  has  gone  from  the  flask.     Measure  roughly  in  square  centi- 
meters the  several  leaves  on  the  twig  or  plant.     Estimate  the  number  of 
leaves  on  a  good-sized  tree.     How  much  water  would  it  transpire  daily  ? 
State  the  results  of  your  estimate. 

11.  Inclose  the  pot  of  a  small  potted  nasturtium,  freshly  watered,  in 
sheet  rubber  (dentist's  rubber)  or  paraffined  paper,  fastening .  the  rubber 
snugly  around  the  stem  of  the  plant  with  a  cord.     Weigh  it,  rubber  and  all, 
at  once.    Let  it  stand  for  several  days  and  weigh  again.    What  does  this 
experiment  show  that  the  foregoing  one  did  not?     Compare  the  results 
with  the  results  of  the  above.     Record. 

12.  Mount  a  strip  of  the  epidermis  peeled  from  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf  of  Wandering  Jew  in  a  drop  of  water  on  a  slide  and  cover  with  a  cover 
glass.     Examine  under  a  microscope.     Draw  to  show  the  stomata.     Con- 
sult books  to  find  some  estimate  of  the  number  of  them  to  a  square  centi- 
meter of  leaf  surface  and  give  the  data  here. 

13.  See  a  cross-section  of  a  leaf  under  the  microscope  and  draw  to  show 
upper  epidermis,  palisade  tissue,  parenchyma,  lower  epidermis  with  its 
stomata.     Make  diagrammatic  drawing. 

14.  Add  a  teaspoonful  of  red  ink  to  a  half-tumbler  of  water.     Put  in  it 
a  stalk  of  celery  and  a  white  carnation  on  a  short  stem.    Let  stand  for 
twenty-four  hours.     What  happens?     Cut  open  the  celery  stalk.     This 
shows  two  things:    (i)  that  fluids  are  conducted  in  the  stem  along  the 

• ,  (2)  that  not  only  water  but  substances 

are  carried  up  to  the  leaves.     (How  is  the 

red  ink  made  ?) 

15.  Take  two  quart  fruit  jars.     On  the  bottom  of  each  place  a  small 
potted  plant  and  a  short  piece  of  candle.    Light  each  candle  and  screw  on 
the  tops.     Why  does  the  flame  go  out  ?    What  is  there  in  each  jar  ?    Let 
stand  in  good  sunlight  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.     Make  some  lime- 
water  (find  out  how  to  do  it)  and  test  your  own  breath  for  carbon  dioxide. 
Pour  a  couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  limewater  into  one  jar,  removing  the 


SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS  113 

cover  as  little  as  possible.  Shake  it  around  thoroughly  and  look  to  see 
what  its  condition  is  ?  What  does  this  show  ? 

Light  a  splinter  of  wood  and  slide  the  cover  of  the  other  jar  to  one  side 
enough  to  admit  it.  Does  it  burn  in  the  jar  ?  This  shows  what  ? 

1 6.  Turn  over  boards  or  stones  in  the  field  to  find  a  plant  growing  partly 
under  the  board,  partly  out  in  the  light.     What  is  the  color  of  the  covered- 
up  portion  ?    What  is  the  usual  color  of  all  plant  leaves  ?     Do  you  know 
why  ?    Take  a  blanched  leaf  and  a  green  leaf  from  the  plant  you  have  found. 
Notch  one  so  you  can  tell  them  apart.     Put  both  into  70  per  cent  alcohol 
in  a  small  covered  dish  for  a  few  hours,  until  the  green  color  is  gone  from  the 
green  leaf.     Warm  the  alcohol  if  necessary.     (Be  careful;  it  burns  readily.) 
Pour  off  the  alcohol,  wash  with  water,  and  stain  with  iodine  solution. 
State  your  conclusion. 

Read  up  now  on  the  process  of  food  manufacture  in  the  plant  and  write 
a  statement  of  what  occurs  in  the  leaf  as  sugar,  for  instance,  is  made. 
Refer  to  the  experiments  as  needed  to  illustrate  the  steps.  What  part 
does  light  play  in  the  process?  the  chlorophyll?  Draw  on  the  opposite 
page  a  seedling  plant  to  show  that  it  is  sensitive  to  the  influence  of  light; 
also  a  "leaf  mosaic." 

17.  Set  a  piece  of  cardboard  vertically  in  a  flowerpot.     Fill  one  side 
of   the  pot  with  sand  and  the  other  with  well-manured  earth.     Then 
remove  the  cardboard  partition  and  plant  on  the  midline  between  the 
two  sorts  of  soil  a  few  oat  or  sunflower  seeds.     When  the  seedlings  are 
well  up  displaying  several  leaves,  root   up   carefully  and  see  where  the 
roots  are. 

Roots  ordinarily  grow in  response  to Do  you 

realize  how  remarkable  it  is  that  two  points  so  close  together  as  the  stem 
and  root  in  the  embryo  should  start  one  up  and  the  other  down  under 

identical  conditions  ?  The  roots  in  the  experiments  grow in 

response  to 

(Does  the  term  you  fill  in  here  explain  the  phenomenon  or  name  it  ?) 

Work. — Does  a  plant  work?  If  so,  where  does  it  get  the  energy  to 
accomplish  it?  The  partial  answer  has  been  given  above.  This  experi- 
ment will  make  clear  another  source  of  energy. 

1 8.  Put  a  layer  of  moist,  crumpled,  filter  paper  or  blotting  paper  in 
each  of  two  pint  fruit  jars.     Add  a  level  teaspoonful  of  radish  or  clover 
seed.     Put  in  another  layer  of  paper  and  more  seed  in  each,  then  moisten 
and  screw  on  the  covers.     Let  stand  three  or  four  days,  until  the  seeds 
are  plainly  germinated.     Introduce  carefully  a  lighted  splinter  of  wood 
into  one  jar,  sliding  the  cover  slightly  to  one  side  for  the  purpose.     What 
happens?    Try  the  limewater  test  for  carbon  dioxide  on  the  contents  of 


114  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

the  other  ja"r,  pouring  off  the  limewater  to  see  if  it  is  milky  after  shaking 
it  about.     What  process  in  your  own  body  is  the  equivalent  of  this  ? 

19.  This  same  process  of is  going  on  in  roots. 

Put  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  in  a  small  bottle  of  water  (or  fill  one  partly 
full  of  phenol-phthaleine  solution  to  which  has  been  added  a  drop  of  dilute 
ammonia).     Root  out  a  small  nasturtium  or  other  small  plant  and  set  it 
in  the  bottle,  holding  it  in  place  with  absorbent  cotton  packed  into  the 
neck  around  the  stem.     Let  stand  for  several  days,  noting  changes  in  color 
of  the  paper  or  solution.     Meanwhile  dip  blue  and  red  litmus  paper  into 
dilute  acid  and  dilute  alkali,  like  ammonia,  to  note  effect  and  to  see  that 
litmus  is  a  test  for  an  acid.     Try  a  drop  of  dilute  alkali  and  of  dilute  acid 
in  the  phenol-phthaleine  solution. 

Why  will  plants  not  thrive  as  well  in  crocks  or  cans  as  in  earthenware 
pots  ?    How  would  you  build  a  window  box  to  avoid  this  difficulty  ? 

20.  If  you  girdle  a  tree  what  happens  ?    This  shows  what  ?     Peel  off 
the  bark  from  a  narrow  ring  at  about  the  middle  of  a  willow  or  basswood 
twig.     Set  this  in  a  bottle  of  water  so  the  peeled  ring  is  an  inch  or  so  above 
the  water.     Plug  the  neck  of  the  bottle  with  absorbent  cotton.     Does  the 
twig  keep  fresh?     Evidently  the  water  is  going  up  to  the  leaves  through 

Let  stand  for  several  weeks  and  see  on  which 

side  of  the  ring  the  new  roots  grow.     This  shows  what  ? 

21.  Soils. — The  chemical  compounds  that  make  up  the  tissues  of  plants 
are  chiefly  carbon  (C),  hydrogen  (H),  oxygen  (O),  and  nitrogen  (N),  together 
with  relatively  small  quantities  of  phosphorus  (P),  calcium  (Ca),  sulphur 
(S),  iron  (Fe),  etc.     Which  of  these  have  we  seen  go  into  the  plant  from 
the  air  ?    Which  from  the  soil  ?    Which  of  these  several  things  is  of  most 
importance  may  be  judged  from  this  experiment:    Take  seven  pots  of 
clean  sand.     Mix  thoroughly  into  No.  i  half  as  much  pulverized  sodium 
nitrate  as  can  be  put  on  a  dime;   in  No.  2  the  same  amount  of  sodium 
phosphate;   No.  3,  sodium  sulphate;   No.  4,  calcium  sulphate;   No.  5,  iron 
sulphate;   No.  6,  mix  all  these  substances  in  equal  amounts  and  add  the 
same  quantity  of  the  mixture;   to  No.  7  nothing  is  added.     Plant  twenty 
oat  or  barley  kernels  in  each  pot,  water  carefully  with  distilled  water  or 
rain  water,  and  keep  them  growing  for  several  weeks.     Note  the  color  and 
general  vigor  of  the  plants.     Record  results  and  conclusions. 

22.  Take  500  grams  of  garden  soil  and  put  it  in  an  iron  dish  that  you 
have  previously  weighed.     Set  the  pan  with  the  soil  on  a  ring  stand  over 
a  Bunsen  burner  that  is  burning  with  a  flame  that  will  keep  the  soil  warm 
but  not  burn  it,  or  the  pan  may  be  warmed  on  the  stove.     At  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours  let  it  cool  and  then  weigh  it  and  record  the  weight.     The 
loss  of  weight  represents  what  ?     Put  the  pan  of  soil  back  on  the  ring  stand 


1 


SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS  115 

or  on  the  stove  and  heat  it  hard  for  three  or  four  hours,  stirring  it  occa- 
sionally with  a  glass  rod.  Again  cool  and  weigh.  The  loss  of  weight 
represents  what  this  time  ?  Stir  the  soil  sample  into  two  liters  of  water. 
Let  it  stand  for  a  minute  or  two  until  the  sand  settles  to  the  bottom.  Pour 
off  the  water  and  the  contained  silt  into  a  second  vessel.  Dry  the  sand 
and  weigh  it.  Thus  a  rough  analysis  of  the  soil  has  been  made. 

23.  Mix  a  half- tumbler  of  garden  soil  with  water  to  the  consistency  of 
thick  cream.     Put  a  bit  of  blue  litmus  paper  in  it  and  let  stand,  noting  any 
change  in  color  of  the  paper.     What  does  the  experiment  show  ? 

24.  Fill  a  student-lamp  chimney  or  long,  wide  glass  tube  with  fine,  dry 
sand,  tying  a  cloth  over  one  end  so  it  cannot  spill  out;   fill  another  with 
coarse  dry  sand,  another  with  dry  garden  soil,  and  another  with  dry  pul- 
verized clay.     Set  all  four,  cloth  end  down,  in  a  pan  and  fasten  so  that 
they  will  not  tumble  over.     Now  pour  water  into  the  pan.     Which  sort  of 
soil  absorbs  water  most  rapidly?     In  which  does  the  water  finally  rise 
highest  ?     State  your  conclusions. 

25.  Fill  three  low  pots  of  equal  size  with  garden  soil.     Now  pour 
100  c.c.  of  water  into  each.     Sprinkle  a  layer  of  sand  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
deep  in  one  pot,  a  layer  of  garden  soil  in  the  other,  and  leave  the  third 
without  any  added  soil.     Weigh  all  and  record  the  weights.     Let  them 
stand  for  twenty-four  hours  and  weigh.     Weigh  again  at  the  end  of  forty- 
eight  hours.     Record  the  weights  and  your  conclusions  from  the  experi- 
ment. 


THE  GARDEN 

Garden  work  is  primarily  aimed  at  (a)  the  formation  of  a  life-habit  of 
productivity,  (b)  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  garden  activities,  with  the 
attendant  joy  in  such  work.  The  desired  skills  that  may  readily  be  achieved 
in  elementary-school  work  stated  approximately  in  the  order  of  their 
difficulty  are  as  follows:  Raising  annuals  from  seeds  planted  in  the  open; 
raising  them  from  seeds  planted  indoors,  then  transplanting  to  the  open; 
raising  perennials  from  seeds  and  transplanting  to  permanent  positions; 
raising  flowers  from  bulbs,  such  as  paper-white  narcissus,  jonquils,  daffodils, 
tulips,  hyacinths,  amaryllis,  planting  these  bulbs  in  pots  indoors  and  in  beds 
outdoors;  preparation  of  soil;  cultivation;  handling  fertilizers;  propaga- 
tion by  cuttings,  layering;  window  gardening;  raising  tree  seedlings  and 
grafting;  pruning;  making  and  handling  the  cold  frame  and  hotbed; 
planting  the  home  grounds  with  reference  to  maximum  production  and 
beauty  of  effect. 

Annuals. — Obtain  a  catalogue  of  flower  and  vegetable  seed  from  some 
reliable  dealer  and  with  its  aid  plan  a  garden  and  draw  to  scale  for  kinder- 
garten and  first  and  second  grades,  selecting  both  flowers  and  vegetables 
to  be  planted  by  each  grade.  The  ones  most  easily  handled  are  to  be 
planted  by  the  kindergarten,  more  difficult  ones  by  the  first  grade,  and 
still  more  difficult  ones  by  the  second  grade — all  to  be  things  that  will 
mature  either  before  school  is  out  in  June  or  else  in  the  fall  and  be  ready  to 
harvest  after  September.  The  garden  is  to  be  a  community  garden  to  be 
worked  in  common  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  instead  of  having 
individual  plots  for  the  pupils.  Space  to  be  occupied  30  by  30  ft.  Let  the 
class  decide  on  the  best  plan  and  put  it  into  operation,  members  of  the 
class  doing  the  work.  If  space  will  not  permit  the  entire  garden,  try  work 
for  only  one  grade.  It  is  supposed  that  the  ground  is  fertilized  and 
spaded.  Demonstrate  the  use  of  hoes  and  rake,  use  of  stakes  and  line  in 
making  straight  rows,  making  the  drills,  putting  in  seed,  covering  and  firm- 
ing the  earth  afterward.  List  the  seeds  to  be  used,  the  depth  at  which 
each  kind  is  to  be  planted  and  the  distance  apart  in  the  drills. 

Determine  what  varieties  of  tomato,  cabbage,  and  asters  are  best  for 
your  climate,  then  buy  these  seeds.  Find  out  what  is  the  proper  time  to 
plant  and  then  plant  in  pans  indoors  the  seed  of  these  plants.  Transplant 
some  to  individual  pots  for  "pot-grown  plants"  and  leave  the  others  in  the 
pans  to  set  out  directly  in  the  ground.  What  is  the  average  date  of  the  last 

116 


THE  GARDEN  117 

killing  frost  in  your  locality  ?  When  danger  from  the  frost  is  over  set  out 
the  plants  in  the  garden. 

Perennials. — Prepare  a  seed  bed  for  perennials.  Let  each  student  try 
to  grow  one  sort.  Select  the  best  perennials,  including  in  the  list  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  hollyhocks,  and  phlox.  Find  out  what  varieties  of  these  as  well 
as  of  the  others  are  best  suited  to  your  locality.  Plant  seeds  of  them  and 
in  the  fall  transplant  to  their  permanent  locality  in  the  school  garden. 
Mark  the  spots  where  they  are  set  so  that  they  will  not  be  disturbed  in  the 
spring  cultivation. 

Bulbs.— Find  out  how  to  plant  these  several  sorts  of  bulbs,  both  indoors 
and  out,  including  information  regarding  time  to  plant,  the  depth  at  which 
they  should  be  planted,  and  the  distance  apart  in  the  bed:  paper-white 
narcissus,  jonquil,  crocus,  daffodil,  freesia,  Roman  hyacinth,  hyacinth, 
amaryllis.  Write  up  this  information  on  the  opposite  page.  Set  some  of 
these  in  pots  for  indoor  blooming  and  some  in  beds  outdoors. 

Preparation  of  soil,  cultivation,  and  handling  fertilizer. — In  the  work 
with  seeds  and  seedlings  we  have  studied  the  principles  underlying  the 
preparation  of  the  soil,  its  cultivation,  and  the  use  of  fertilizers.  For  a 
review  answer  the  following:  Why  is  the  soil  spaded  and  raked?  How 
deep  would  it  be  wise  to  spade  ?  Why  is  the  garden  hoed  ?  During  what 
sort  of  weather  must  it  be  hoed  and  raked  most  ?  Is  it  wise  to  dig  paths 
between  the  beds  or  should  they  be  on  the  level  with  the  beds  ?  Test 
the  garden  soil  to  see  if  it  needs  lime.  How  much  should  be  applied  to  a 
square  rod? 

Fertilization. — Lay  out  a  plot,  say,  16  ft.  square  (or  smaller)  and 
fertilize  the  upper  half  with  a  good  dressing  of  manure  dug  in  well  in  the  fall. 
Lime  the  right-hand  half.  Plant  the  middle  half  in  September  with  winter 
vetch  and  dig  this  green  fertilizer  in,  in  the  early  spring,  at  the  time  spading 
the  whole  plot.  Plant  tomatoes  or  cabbage  on  the  whole  plot  and  cultivate 
all  with  equal  care.  Weigh  the  crop  from  each  of  the  following  portions: 

1.  Manured,  but  not  limed  nor  green  manured. 

2.  Manured,  limed,  but  not  green  manured. 

3.  Manured,  not  limed,  but  green  manured. 

4.  Manured,  limed,  and  green  manured. 

5.  Not  manured  nor  limed,  but  green  manured. 

6.  Not  manured,  but  limed  and  green  manured. 

7.  Not  manured,  limed,  nor  green  manured. 

8.  Not  manured  nor  green  manured,  but  limed. 

In  a  similar  way  a  portion  of  the  school  garden  can  be  used  as  a  demon- 
stration plot  to  try  out  the  value  of  various  commercial  fertilizers  or  methods 
of  cultivation  on  the  chief  crops  of  the  locality. 


n8  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

Propagation. — Let  each  pupil  learn  how  to  make  a  cutting  and  then  cut 
a  slip  from  a  geranium  plant  and  plant  it  in  damp  sand  or  root  it  in  water. 
Try  the  same  with  Wandering  Jew,  petunia,  heliotrope,  and  ivy  and  plant 
the  window  boxes  with  some  of  these.  (See  below.)  When  the  shrubs 
and  trees  are  pruned  use  the  trimmings  to  make  cuttings  and  start  them 
indoors  in  pots  so  that  they  will  be  ready  to  set  out  fully  leaved  in  the 
spring.  Find  out  how  to  make  cuttings  of  currant,  raspberry,  blackberry, 
grape,  and  of  ornamental  shrubs.  Find  out  what  "layering"  is  and  try  it. 

Pruning.— Read  up  on  the  topic  of  pruning  or,  better,  watch  some 
skilled  nurseryman  and  draw  here  ta  diagram  of  a  fruit  tree  to  show  how  it 
should  be  pruned  and  also  one  of  an  elm.  Diagram  the  proper  method  of 
pruning  a  grapevine  and  of  training  it  on  the  trellis.  Look  up  and  describe 
the  proper  method  of  pruning  currants,  raspberries,  and  blackberries. 
Prepare  to  prune  shade  trees,  fruit  trees,  small  fruits,  and  ornamental 
shrubs,  marking  with  chalk  the  places  at  which  the  branches  are  to  be  cut 
so  that  the  work  may  be  inspected  before  branches  are  actually  removed. 
Save  the  branches  removed  for  cuttings  (above)  and  also  for  grafting 
(below). 

Get  information  from  books  in  regard  to  the  proper  method  of  pro- 
cedure in  grafting  and  budding.  Briefly  describe  it  or  diagram  it  here. 
Practice  grafting  or  budding  on  some  of  the  branches  and  twigs  obtained 
from  the  pruning.  Then  when  some  skill  is  acquired,  try  it  on  trees  and 
bushes  in  the  garden.  If  such  are  not  available  or  are  considered  too 
valuable  to  chance  injury  by  incompetent  workers,  try  grafting  wild  pin 
cherry  on  black  cherry,  hawthorn  on  wild  crab,  cultivated  cherry  on  the 
wild,  cultivated  crabs  on  wild  crab,  or  seedling  tomatoes  on  pot-grown 
potatoes  indoors. 

Window  gardens. — The  window  garden  must  have  good  drainage,  free 
access  of  air  to  the  roots,  and  an  abundant  water  supply  coming  to  the 
roots  from  below.  Devise  a  window  box  providing  these  and  diagram  it 
here. 

Look  up  in  books  on  window  gardening  a  list  of  the  best  annuals  and 
perennials  to  grow  in  the  window  box,  selecting  those  that  thrive  best  as 
well  as  those  that  are  readily  handled  by  pupils.  Fill  in  the  lists  on  the 
opposite  page,  classifying  them  as  annuals  and  perennials. 

Provide  each  pupil  with  part  of  a  window  box,  if  possible;  if  not,  have 
one  at  least  for  the  class.  Plant  it  with  annuals  raised  from  seeds  and 
bulbs  or  perennials  from  slips  and  cuttings,  considering  character  of  foliage, 
time  and  color  of  blossoms,  so  as  to  insure  a  box  that  will  be  in  good  taste. 
Either  in  portions  of  the  window  boxes  or  in  pots  plant  indoors  the  seeds 
of  apple,  pear,  cherry,  peach,  plum,  and  quince,  so  as  to  have  good-sized 


THE  GARDEN  1 19 

pot-grown  seedlings  of  these  to  set  out  in  the  garden  in  the  spring.  A  year 
later  these  yearling  trees  may  be  used  for  grafting  and  budding.  Grow 
also  ash,  elm,  hickory,  maple,  mountain  ash,  oak,  and  walnut  from  seed  for 
shade  trees. 

Plotting  the  home  grounds. — On  the  opposite  page  draw  to  scale  the  plan 
of  a  lot  75  by  200  with  a  house  15  by  40,  garage  or  barn  10  by  16,  and  a 
vegetable  garden.  The  object  in  planting  is  threefold:  (i)  to  make  the 
lot  produce  as  much  as  possible  in  the  way  of  garden  stuff,  fruit,  and  flowers, 
(2)  to  make  it  as  beautiful  as  possible,  and  (3)  to  make  the  place  attractive 
to  the  birds  so  that  they  may  nest  on  the  grounds. 

General  directions. — Indicate  location  of  shrubs  and  trees  by  a  circled 
number,  the  number  inside  referring  to  the  name  of  the  variety  given  in 
the  key  to  the  scheme.  These  rough  circles  should  be  made  approxi- 
mately to  scale  and  should  show  the  size  of  the  tree  or  shrub  when  grown. 

The  following  principles  should  be  observed:  Group  plants  around 
margins  so  as  to  leave  wide  spaces  for  the  lawn.  In  planting  shrubbery 
use  shrubs  blossoming  at  different  times  of  the  year  so  that  something 
will  be  in  bloom  all  the  time.  Consider,  also,  the  fall  fruits,  so  that  beds 
of  shrubbery  will  have  color  in  them  even  after  the  leaves  have  fallen. 
Keep  in  mind  the  height  to  which  various  shrubs  grow.  Low  shrubs  should 
be  used,  of  course,  for  borders,  higher  shrubs  for  background.  In  planting 
against  the  house  consider  the  color  of  the  blossoms  in  connection  with  the 
color  of  the  house.  Thus  a  crimson  rambler  growing  on  a  red  brick  house 
is,  to  say  the  least,  inharmonious.  Planting  effects  should  be  considered 
primarily  from  the  inside  of  the  house.  The  views  out  of  the  windows 
are  the  first  consideration,  the  effect  from  the  street  the  second.  Flowers 
growing  close  to  a  window  must  harmonize  too  with  the  tinting  of  the 
interior  walls.  In  planting  shrubs  and  flowering  plants  either  they  should 
be  arranged  to  produce  mass  effects,  i.e.,  quantities  of  the  same  sort  of 
blossom  all  together  at  one  time,  or  they  should  be  set  so  as  to  have  con- 
trasts of  foliage  and  variety  in  the  time  of  bloom,  thus  securing  a  clump 
that  will  be  bright  with  flowers  or  fruits  at  all  seasons. 

Native  shrubs  and  trees  may  be  used  to  plant  either  the  home  grounds 
or  the  school  grounds  with  very  little  expense  if  one  is  willing  to  take  time 
to  locate  specimens  that  can  be  transplanted  and  if  one  will  learn  how  to  do 
it.  In  transplanting  shrubs  or  trees  take  up  as  much  of  the  root  system 
as  possible  with  a  good-sized  mass  of  adherent  earth.  Have  a  hole  pre- 
pared to  receive  it  and  set  the  plant  promptly.  Spread  the  roots,  then 
cover  with  soil,  either  washing  it  in  or  stamping  it  in.  It  needs  to  be  packed 
closely  about  the  finer  roots.  The  head  of  the  tree  or  shrub  should  be  cut 
back  so  that  it  will  be  approximately  the  size  of  the  root  system  set  in  the 


120  A  FIELD  GUIDE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 

ground.  Transplanting  is  best  done  in  the  late  fall  except  in  the  case  of  the 
conifers.  These  are  to  be  transplanted  on  cloudy  and  preferably  cool  days 
in  July  or  August.  Keep  the  root  mass  covered  with  damp  sacking  while 
the  tree  is  being  transported. 

Planting  the  home  grounds.— Before  starting  the  planting  it  would  be 
well  to  fill  in  the  tabulation  of  trees  and  shrubs  that  are  attractive  to  the 
birds  and  of  other  desirable  ones  and  also  a  list  of  the  annual  and  perennial 
flowers  and  vegetables  that  may  possibly  be  used  so  as  to  have  for  immediate 
reference  data  regarding  size,  time  of  blossoming,  etc.  Make  headings  for 
the  tables  on  the  blank  pages  following  as  indicated  below: 

TREES 

NAME  HEIGHT  DIAMETER  OF  TIME  OF  CHARACTER  OF  SHEDS 

SPACE  NEEDED  BLOSSOM  FRUIT  LEAVES  WHEN 

SHRUBS 

NAME  HEIGHT  DIAMETER  COLOR  OF  COLOR  OF  TIME  OF  FRUIT 

OF  TOP  FOLIAGE  BLOSSOM  BLOSSOM 

DESIRABLE  ANNUALS 

NAME   HEIGHT   TIME  OF   COLOR  OF    DATE  OF  IN-       DATE  OF     DATE  OF  OUT- 
BLOSSOM   BLOSSOM   DOOR  PLANTING   SETTING  OUT   DOOR  PLANTING 

DESIRABLE  PERENNIALS 

NAME  HEIGHT  TIME    OF  COLOR   OF  DATE  OF  INDOOR  DATE  OF 

BLOSSOM  BLOSSOM  PLANTING  SETTING  OUT 

• 

VEGETABLES 

NAME  DATE  OF  INDOOR  PLANTING  DATE  OF  SETTING  OUT 

VEGETABLES  THAT  MAY  BE  USED  FOR  A  SUCCESSION  OR  CROPS 

THOSE  THAT  MAY  BE  USED  AS  THOSE  TO  BE  USED  AS  A  SECOND     THOSE    THAT    MAY    BE    USED 

A  FIRST  CROP  AND  OFF  THE  CROP.      CHECK   THOSE   THAT           AS  THIRD  CROPS 

GROUND    IN    TIME    FOR    A  WILL  RIPEN  IN  TIME  TO  USE 

SECOND  GROUND  FOR  THIRD 

(Alphabetical  List)  (Alphabetical  List)  (Alphabetical  List) 

Hotbed  and  cold  frame. — The  hotbed  and  cold  frame  are  useful  con- 
trivances for  starting  seeds  early  and  for  hardening  them  preparatory  to 
transplanting.  Diagram  on  the  opposite  page  the  construction  of  the  hot- 
bed. If  possible  construct  a  hotbed  and  a  cold  frame  and  use  them  for 
forcing  some  of  the  seeds  selected  for  use  in  the  school  garden  so  that  good- 
sized  plants  may  be  had  for  setting  out. 


•J65T42 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

BIOLOGY  LIBRARY 

TEL  NO.  642-2532 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


LD21A-6wi-l,'75 
(S3364SlO)476-A-32 


General  Library 
University  of  California 
Berkel 


